How dopamine enables learning from aversion

Dopamine is heavily studied for its role in reward learning, but it is becoming increasingly appreciated that dopamine can also enable learning from aversion. Dopamine neurons modulate their firing and neurotransmitter release patterns in response to aversive outcomes. However, there is considerable heterogeneity in the timing and directionality of the modulation. Open questions remain as to the factors that determine this heterogeneity and how varying patterns of responses to aversion in different dopamine-receptive brain regions contribute to value learning, decision-making, and avoidance. Here, we review recent progress in this area and highlight important future directions. • Dopamine neurons respond heterogeneously to aversive stimuli and outcomes. • Dopamine responses to aversion can guide learning. • Roles for dopamine neurons in aversion learning vary by subpopulation. • Discovering roles for dopamine in aversion learning has implications for psychiatry.