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Used in e-mobility and electronics, batteries are key technologies in the decarbonisation of the economy and in accomplishing the aims of the European Green Deal. Cobalt is one of the materials used in lithium-ion batteries, and its extraction is a concern in terms of human rights abuses, child labour, and tragic working conditions particularly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) which supplies around 60% of the world's supply, with a relevant share of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM). Responding to these risks, some programs for the responsible sourcing of cobalt have been launched in recent years. Several policy initiatives at EU level aim to promote ethical sourcing of battery raw materials. In describing the results of research into the responsible and sustainable sourcing of cobalt for batteries, this article focuses on the artisanal mining sector in the DRC. Based on primary and secondary data collection and assessment of improvement against the requirements of responsible sourcing (RS) frameworks and sustainability assessment guidance (including Social Life Cycle Assessment, S-LCA), this study compares the situation of two pilot projects to the general situation at cobalt ASM sites in the Katangese Copperbelt. Specifically, the study examines the implementation of the Mutoshi Cobalt Pilot (MCP) and Better Mining at the Kasulo site, both in Lualaba province. The case study then provides the basis for discussing the lessons learned for the assessment and monitoring of responsible sourcing programs and of due diligence schemes and possible implications for policy. Results show that the systems analysed are rather effective in implementing the changes that they are designed to make, especially in the case of life-threatening working conditions, child labour, and corruption. However, the risk categories addressed by these projects are dictated by downstream expectations and do not necessarily correspond to the demands of the miners they are designed to protect. For instance, price calculation and income as well as gender considerations are particularly salient aspects and are not captured by RS programs, but are part of the S-LCA framework. This study confirms the need to support ASM formalisation and its inclusion in global supply chains, discusses the challenges of developing and upscaling RS programs for cobalt, and contributes to the definition of a set of categories to be scrutinized for the assessment and monitoring of these programs.
Mancini et al. (Sat,) studied this question.