Family environments and daily activities shape children’s executive function: Cross-ethnic evidence from a multicultural Asian society.

= 14.2) at baseline across ethnic Chinese, Malay, and Indian families. Structural equation modeling revealed that parental resources predicted children's EF both directly and indirectly through parenting behaviors and children's activities. Greater parental resources, including better verbal cognitive ability, stronger self-control, and lower economic stress, were associated with more positive parenting (consistent rule-setting, warmth/responsiveness, and less punishment), as well as more enriching time-use patterns in children. Among parenting behaviors, rule-setting was the strongest predictor of children's time use, particularly lower screen time and greater time spent in achievement-oriented activities, both of which, in turn, predicted hot and cool EF. Physically active play also predicted stronger EF, independent of parental resources and parenting behaviors. Multigroup analyses revealed largely consistent pathways across ethnic groups, although some associations differed in magnitude or emerged only within specific groups. These findings highlight both universal and culturally contingent pathways to EF development and underscore the importance of situating EF within sociocultural contexts to inform culturally responsive interventions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).