Volcanically driven Hg–C–S cycling and climate change across the Early Permian Artinskian warming

Climate change and driving mechanisms of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age, an ideal analogue to the present-day global change, remain controversial. Here we propose a volcanic carbon–sulfur radiative forcing mechanism by investigating the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Junggar Basin, northern Pangea, across the Artinskian warming. Carbon isotope stratigraphy and paleoclimatic proxies record Early Permian carbon cycle fluctuations and second-order cooling amid first-order Artinskian warming. Peaks in mercury concentrations, mercury/total organic carbon, and negative δ13Corg and δ34Sbulk excursions align with Tarim Large Igneous Province eruptions, indicating that Tarim volcanism drove mercury–carbon–sulfur cycling and climate change. Specifically, sulfur cycling induced short-term cooling via elevated atmospheric sulfate, while carbon cycling fueled long-term warming by raising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Globally, volcanism likely modulated carbon–sulfur cycling and glacial–nonglacial alternations across geological eras, with sulfate forcing being a long-overlooked yet crucial mechanism for climate evolution. Volcanic activity played a key role in driving glacial–interglacial/nonglacial cycles by altering global carbon and sulfur cycles, with sulfur emissions causing cooling and possible glaciation, and carbon emissions leading to warming and potential deglaciation, according to integrated Hg–C–S geochemistry of the Lower Permian Lucaogou Formation of the Junggar Basin, China.