Organoids of the reproductive system: A comprehensive review of advances in male and female models, disease applications, and future perspectives

Organoid technology has emerged as an important platform for reproductive system research. Compared with traditional two-dimensional culture systems, organoids are three-dimensional in vitro models derived from pluripotent stem cells, adult stem cells, or primary patient tissues that self-organize and recapitulate key architectural and functional features of native organs and tissues. These models have advanced research on reproductive biology, disease mechanisms, drug screening, toxicity assessment, and precision medicine. This review summarizes recent progress in reproductive system organoids, including the developmental history of organoid technology and its applications in both female and male reproductive systems. Specifically, we discuss ovarian, endometrial, placental, fallopian tube, cervical, testicular, and prostate organoids, together with their applications in reproductive disease research. We further highlight advances in disease modeling, reproductive toxicology, and patient-derived organoid-based translational studies, and discuss the major challenges and future directions in this field. Overall, this review provides an integrated overview of reproductive system organoids and their potential to support future basic, translational, and clinical research.