Constructing English as a second language in schools: comparative policy experiences and implementation challenges for Vietnam

This article examines the policy construction of English as a second language in school systems and analyzes Vietnam’s recent shift under Decision No. 2371/QĐ-TTg (2025), which formally promotes English as a second language in schools for 2025–2035, with a vision to 2045. Drawing on language planning theory and a qualitative comparative policy analysis of Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, India, the Republic of Korea, and the Netherlands, the study investigates how English moves beyond foreign-language status through status planning, acquisition planning, English-medium instruction, and broader development strategies. The analysis shows that second-language status is shaped less by legal recognition than by institutional capacity to sustain regular functional use across education systems. Four recurring patterns emerge: economic competitiveness as the main policy rationale, tensions between English expansion and national language identity, gaps between policy ambition and implementation capacity, and the reproduction of inequality through unequal access to linguistic capital. Vietnam’s main challenge is therefore not designation, but equitable and sustainable implementation.