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In this study, a comprehensive comparison of carbon electrodes derived from kraft lignin (LK) and starch—modified via hydrothermal treatment and ionic liquids, including Zn(TFSI) 2 —is presented. The samples include nitrogen‑carbonized lignin (LKN 2 ), hydrothermally modified lignin (LKN 2 H), and lignin treated with C 4 imHSO 4 (LK-IL 1) or C 4 C 1 imMeSO 3 (LK-IL 2), in addition to hydrothermally modified starch (starchN 2 H). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), Bode phase analysis, and temperature-dependent thermodynamic modelling reveal how precursor origin and surface chemistry influence lithium diffusion, activation energy, and capacitive performance. Among the tested materials, LKN 2 H demonstrates the most balanced performance, combining low activation energy with stable diffusion across various temperature ranges. Our findings confirm that Zn(TFSI) 2 treatment introduces functional groups and Zn 2+ species that significantly enhance lithium-ion transport, particularly in lignin-derived carbons. This strategy, which is rarely applied in biomass-based systems, offers a promising route to improve electrochemical performance through surface-level ionic engineering, complementing precursor-driven structural design. The effects of ionic liquids and precursor type are critically evaluated and contextualized with respect to existing literature.
Gross et al. (Thu,) studied this question.
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