Structure–function relationships of wheat and non-wheat flours: Impact on dough rheology, bread texture and visible spoilage during storage

Flour functionality in bakery systems is governed by interactions among composition, particle size distribution, and microstructural organization. This study compared whole wheat, refined wheat, maize, and arrowroot flours to establish structure–function relationships linking physicochemical properties with dough rheology, bread texture, and visible spoilage during storage. Flour composition, particle size distribution, microstructure, dough texture, and bread quality were assessed. Wheat flours exhibited typical viscoelastic behaviour associated with gluten network formation, whereas maize and arrowroot flours behaved as starch-dominated systems. Arrowroot flour produced significantly harder bread (9318 N) than maize (3035 N), refined wheat (2188 N) and whole wheat (1383 N), together with the highest gumminess (1656 N) and chewiness (208 N). In contrast, whole wheat bread showed the highest springiness (0.22) and cohesiveness (0.282), indicating greater structural resilience. Visible spoilage during storage occurred early in maize bread, whereas whole wheat and arrowroot breads exhibited delayed fungal growth. These results demonstrate that particle size distribution and microstructural organization are primary determinants of hydration behaviour, matrix development, and final bread quality. The proposed structure–function framework provides practical criteria for flour selection and process optimization, particularly for improving dough handling, product uniformity, and storage stability in gluten-free bakery production.