Auditory and olfactory comfort in temporary urban events: Effects on affective valence and perceived crowd stress in a high-density city

The influence of non-visual sensory conditions on affective responses in high-density temporary urban events remains limited, particularly beyond laboratory-based studies. This study examines the effects of perceived auditory and olfactory comfort on perceived crowd stress, event attractiveness, and affective valence during temporary urban events in Macao. Using survey data from 1945 participants and structural equation modelling with mediation analysis, the study estimates both direct and indirect pathways linking sensory appraisal to emotional outcomes. Results indicate that perceived auditory comfort exerts the strongest total effect on affective valence, primarily through perceived event attractiveness, whereas perceived olfactory comfort contributes more selectively through perceived crowd-stress appraisal. These findings identify differentiated roles of sensory modalities in shaping affective responses and extend multisensory integration research from controlled environments to real-world, high-density temporary urban contexts, providing implications for soundscape, smellscape, and crowd-flow management.