Multiscale biofabrication of vascular network, functional integration and quality assessment – A review

The biofabrication of perfusable, multiscale vascular networks is a critical prerequisite for engineering thick functional tissues. Replicating the native vascular hierarchy, from millimeter-scale arteries to micrometer-scale capillaries, requires integrating advanced fabrication techniques, biocompatible materials, and multiple cell types. This review evaluates the state-of-the-art in vascular network biofabrication, systematically analyzing the interplay between fabrication modalities, biomaterial selection, and cellular strategies for vessel assembly. Although architectural control has advanced, non-adherence to standardisation in quality control remains a principal constraint on translation from bench to bedside. Inconsistent assessment of crucial functional metrics such as burst pressure, compliance, perfusion rates, and patency impedes direct comparison between studies and presents a significant barrier to regulatory approval. The review further examines common failure modes, including structural collapse and thrombosis, linking them directly to choices in design, materials, and cellularization. By outlining quantitative benchmarks and analysing emerging technologies such as computational design and hybrid printing, this review provides a framework for future research and articulates the case for consensus standards to support clinical realisation of thick-tissue vascular engineering.