Assessing the Writing of Struggling Learners

The importance of writing both in and out of school cannot be overestimated. Academic writing is an essential part of the K-12 curriculum—students write to demon.strate, support, and deepen their knowledge and understanding of themselves, their relationships, and their world (Bangert-Drowns, Hurley, & Wilkinson, 2004; Graham, 2006; Graham & Perin, 2007; Keys, 2000; Sperling & Freedman, 2001). As students move into work settings, writing skills are necessary to gain employment and receive promotions (National Commission on Writing, 2004). In the community, teens and adults use email and other electronic writing for communication, daily social interaction, self-exploration and expression, and reflection on current events (National Commission on Writing, 2(X)8). Despite the importance of writing, data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) indicate that many students in the United States struggle as writers. In 2(K)7, only 33% of the nation's eighth graders and 24% of the nation's 12th graders scored at or above grade-level proficiency in writing, while in 2002, 28% of fourth graders scored at or above proficiency (Persky, Daane, & Jin, 2003; Salahu-Din, Persky, & Miller, 2008). In 2(X)7, students with disabilities demonstrated even greater difficulty with writing, as less than 7% of eighth graders and less than 5% of 12th graders with LD received scores of proficient or above. One reason students may have difficulty acquiring and developing gotxl writing abilities is that writing is a complex task requiring the coordination of different skills, processes, and types of knowledge. The complexity of writing means that struggling writers may exhibit difficulties with the process or products of writing or both (De La Paz, Swanson, & Graham, 1998; Graham & Harris, 1996, 2000; Harris & Graham, 1999; Zimmerman & Reisemberg, 1997). Students may have problems in multiple areas of writing or have trouble with only a few areas of writing (Juel, 1988; Whittaker, Berninger, Johnston, & Swanson, 1994). Different student profiles require dilferent approaches to intervention; good assessment practices identify specific areas of concern for each student. While all students benefit from good instructional decisions based on assessment, students who exhibit writing difficulties have special needs that require targeted intervention. A teacher who fully understands a student's specific strengths and needs can design a better instructional program for students using a multitude of assessment tools.