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Mucosal vaccines represent a transformative approach to immunization by stimulating immune responses at mucosal surfaces—the primary entry points for many infectious agents. These vaccines can induce localized mucosal immunity, which is characterized by secretory IgA (SIgA) and robust systemic immune memory. Despite these advantages, mucosal vaccine development faces significant barriers, including antigen degradation, low mucosal absorption, and insufficient immunogenicity. Recent advances in adjuvant technology, antigen delivery platforms, and recombinant expression systems offer promising solutions to overcome these limitations. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current mucosal vaccine strategies, highlights state-of-the-art innovations in formulation and delivery, and identifies critical challenges and future research directions necessary to accelerate clinical translation and global implementation.
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Frank Camacho (2025) studied this question.
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