Perioperative Myocardial Failure

Patients presenting for surgery with congestive heart failure or developing postcardiopulmonary bypass ventricular dysfunction (low cardiac output syndrome).

Positive inotropic agents (cAMP-independent such as digoxin, calcium salts, thyroid hormone, levosimendan; and cAMP-dependent such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, dobutamine, isoproterenol, dopamine, dopexamine, amrinone, milrinone) and mechanical assist devices.