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We introduce a novel dataset - Automation Risk Index (ARI) - measuring job exposure to AI and robotics in Japan at a detailed occupational and industry level. We also provide the first empirical analysis of how automation risk affects labour market outcomes. We find that greater ICT capital intensity negatively impacts employment and wages. However, these effects are significantly weaker in industries with lower automation risk and among more educated workers. Our results suggest that lower exposure to automation and skill complementarities with AI and robotics can protect workers by preserving their bargaining power.
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Fukao et al. (2026) studied this question.
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