Return to Hispaniola: Reassessing a Demographic Catastrophe

There is a dead body on the sidewalk in front of a skyscraper. Whether it fell from the fourth or the fortieth floor is irrelevant for the coroner who has to determine the direct cause of death. It was, beyond a doubt, the impact with the pavement. On the other hand, the police investigating the death are interested in determining from which floor the body fell: was he pushed, and by whom, or did he commit suicide? Hispaniola’s Tainos, a few decades after Columbus’ landfall, completed their course to extinction. This is a relatively well-established fact. But what were their numbers in 1492: one hundred thousand, one million, or ten million? The answer to this question is important, since it may shed light into the mechanisms of the following decline.This article has two aims. The first is to narrow the irreconcilable estimates made by modern authors as to the contact population of Hispaniola, using a variety of methods. The second is to discuss the relative weight of the various determinants of the extinction: disease and mortality, impaired reproductive mechanisms, or mixing with other groups. These two tasks are closely interrelated, because a better estimate of the contact population helps in understanding the mechanisms of extinction, and vice versa.Columbus’ first expedition set foot on the northwestern shore of Hispaniola in December of 1492 and departed in early January of 1493, leaving behind a small settlement of 38 people (Navidad). He returned with 17 ships and 1,200 men at the end of the same year, only to find that the first colonists had been killed.1 A new settlement (Isabela) was founded on the northern coast, and from this point various expeditions went southeast, exploring the fertile valley of Vega Real and the mountainous region of Cibao, where gold was to be found. The period from 1494 to 1496 saw the attempt to subjugate the unwilling Tainos, who abandoned their cultivation and fled to the mountains, causing widespread famine and high mortality. A tribute in gold and kind was imposed on them, but it failed, and rebellions were easily crushed by the Spaniards. Columbus departed in 1496, leaving the colonists under the command of his brother Bartolomé, who founded the new “capital” of Santo Domingo, on the southern coast. The incessant search for gold led to the allotment of native labor to colonists. Discontent raged among the Spaniards— many resented the rule of Columbus’ family—leading to unrest and open rebellion. On the other hand, the crown wanted to extract the maximum profit from the island but the rule of Columbus’ clan became an obstacle and was therefore terminated in 1500.In 1502, Nicolás de was to the island with of command and a of ships and He the in the of the new the and the first and among the as The of gold maximum this but the native population was The who only a few hundred had to his Columbus’ was to the island as in but of the was to to the and to the second in it was and a new one by to the crown was in that only were The of the native population led to a of gold to fled the first to to the of The was by the and by a to the cause of the the impact of the and of in the on the of the men of the were to the island at the end of as a among other to the into but a at the end of many of the the went to in many had been abandoned and gold was but of were with the of a of the of the the native to a few thousand, was to estimates of contact population made by various authors in the from a of to a high of is the point of a by the is an one may that authors on a of estimates is in light of the that Hispaniola’s population was to that to the first of in the one this was a period of the this period a of the native population was A contact the by authors by of this of by and it the weight of But numbers on the that authors or after on the of by Columbus’ brother in or 1496, a of only a small of the island was under of this in the of the the of one was first by the of the who first in the island in This was from one to the of the to in this the by and who the estimate in the to a of the first of was many to narrow the of in estimates of the contact the by the Tainos, their and their This with of and of the may be in to estimate the This is in to determine the of the contact high that this maximum be second of at the of the of tribute imposed and the of the gold The of gold and the of the tribute imposed in the of the of the of gold in with the of labor an estimate of the labor in the at the of the of the and the of but to estimates of contact of the population in as to the of to This of on what is and helps to narrow the of contact population to the that this from to in with a of the estimates in are in and in the of The and of rule in the were and in the island the first two or decades of of a high native population two on one hand, a high population and has the of and of by On the other hand, the same high numbers modern that the and of the was the of new that a But of the two a of the of population with the early of Hispaniola, as and of native and the and of cultivation that be to the of at the of many of the island was under of from and from and was the for The to to estimate the of the and determine the of the population estimates made by early and modern was in of the of and a of or for point the of and in the other and other the The and small and were in in of or with a of On the of of or were and The was into a to a and of were the that the was of or He that of to The of that the to for a that numbers are by other the of of that for of and had to be that The to to the that in the of the into new had with to for a The of for the of the may to a in to two and a after the of the The were after and after a of of were abandoned for or to the of that be in to or the of an of or at the to the of by one of in and The to one for a is the period of is at the and the of is The following be for the of the of the of the is to a of the a of The of the island is the island was for the it be or of the island under of the island under cultivation with since a period is the been for the under it be the A of by for the of a contact population of and the high of of the a of under cultivation for the region and in his of the cultivation and same estimates a of and of the island under and to the island was the of the island were under the only be and of the modern estimates of the contact population of the island are was the of the the of the an to and the for and and the that the crown had made the in the to But gold was in the of the for the of the and the disease and since the search for gold was the of the labor a of gold and a of the is to for two The first is that gold is one of the few for the native population to the first The second is that gold a and of that and in but The were that gold be on on December went and a with a gold a relative of gold was in a the the second the of and Columbus to the Vega Real and the of the to the of the and A the were 1496, at Columbus’ the region was and was gold was in the the in in has a of early A by or ten by ten and one or two was in a and the to a where it was and in by but gold and the on the one is many he has at the and he that are it be that one who on a has to their to the first was the was and gold attempt be made were to the in of from their for of to a of ten under the of had to be with in and from or This a in to the at the The crown and in Hispaniola were to and the of the was colonists were to of the labor to the first attempt to the population of the Vega Real and the of the and of by on the of the tribute imposed on the of the at the end of native of or was to one of gold in 1496 that the tribute had only of the after tribute had to of and since the of be were the the that were or a and that the estimate of from a made by Columbus the was and in But in many had abandoned their and fled to the for of the Spaniards. and the and the that only of the population this into estimates the population of the region at in 1494 and in The population of the island been that second attempt to the population a a the search for gold was in the had been and the island are for but of gold was from the and was the labor of the estimate of gold from the as as from and of the The of the labor be estimates of the of gold in the same as the that of the labor was in the the of the population therefore be in the to are in had to the or of their to the a year, were to the gold to the two in the or where the gold was in and the the of the two at that 1,200 of were in two in of Hispaniola, in that a few the de in the same year, on a of the of the de in that with the into and the was Hispaniola, and and and are to to The various estimates of gold are in a maximum in the first of the in the second and to a in the first of the A of for the period is of labor is to to with a on from Hispaniola and other of the and labor were in but of the and and a few estimates of of of estimates are and in estimates are on of the gold of an their be to who to the after he was in that one or two of gold a be from to These are is a by who in the de in the of that the with on a and in and ten year, but and other the of estimates are on and of for a period of or in at the of the gold in the were in the of of with an of of in are only for set the at since is only one estimate that that for in was on the The other estimate for the same in the to the to the crown for and to the which been the It is to a maximum that of which with modern and in The by the an labor of this be a since in the early of gold were easily been A of a labor of one of a labor of A labor of is since of had to be by a a of to But with a the small population of colonists few hundred at the of the a few at been to for a labor of or the labor the is to the of the population in the for and that of were of the this that of the Hispaniola’s population was in the an for the population be were in the A population of this at be with as as with estimate of in in a of December the of the northern by Columbus an that Columbus to be the of that who a of gold for the But it is on December that a the with his and a which is of in but of which he and and two of gold which were It is on this that or that the is in the of this following Columbus’ that to the had or or or the is that was the of and or as The was the but of did of the of the island but the of the island into the of the to but that one had or other at his Columbus of the and his and of who was the in the Vega Real and in 1496 the the this he was and his were and with other were for and of and in the of the which as a and and This the where and were had and the of their The were to his he had the was to his had to the of the in were the was the of a a that had of and The of is is of the few as be the of settlement it is that the the by an of or A population of a few hundred in the light of the and in to in the of a of only a of and or the of was it is that in the of a the the had been The that a of had only a few of had their but their It is therefore that the in were the same that or their and an of one an but of that had It is to that the contact population had been in or with an population of a few This a population estimate of a few hundred the of few that with and early in the as a of a by the of the where the of and other were the and and that as and of the was the by that in to ten or with their and This easily people in a It has been that to the of the to in with an and and the of in the same or The same that to the of the of the by the for their had to be by and this a in the light of on the of a who had the that the of a to had a of and was by It to that the to and were in and and were the to this island Hispaniola, and in the of of and and in the were one to the with many of his first Columbus who and a a of and he men to a from his On December Columbus’ returned from which and in and to a population of men and and But in a the who Columbus on his second the of of the of as a of the first to the expedition in search of what Columbus to be a of a of On the of after the of the of a to a of or the open of Columbus are the is that in from a few to or for the with from a few to hundred in a or to a of the by one a the end of the from the the island were to the population into to the the of in he the of the into of to with to The were by the in to of and in their of made in this island of Hispaniola where the few that the same that were to of or to the 17 that were in in the second of the in the of and it was to the native population in of a few hundred that this was the for a many were answer this question estimate be made on the of the of was a as It has been that or at the of this since the in Hispaniola of course this on one abandoned at the of on the other that The fertile of Vega Real was to the of the The of and Columbus in search of gold went an from the settlement of to the de a and the Vega Real with But in other as the and for the the and the many where is to the or to in been and the estimates of a contact population of the of this the of A of this in the a be or in But a or as by and two or in the as the Vega Columbus’ of a It is that the early a their had a population of ten at the same at of as labor among in the early of the in the island but became under the rule of who a of as by the and A new was by the in and by in the following the has been but to were the the and after his at to a new in to the many that had and of his clan the and many was on and on January of the following It was by with and with A few on the of this are of the for the of the of was after the had returned to their following their in the and it was by two and and of the to the new the two of the to under the of in their by The second and was made by two for by the among the who went to under the of the of he to or The a of the in The the first and the second that this a of were to the in the of of the and this was as the of the with the of led by The for allotment is as de and of this was the who to be at the of his with and of men and was with the of who are for was with the of who are for was with the of The and in to in and was the made men and and people are and it is in were at or had been or are by in the of a the native with many and this to a It is the first of from the has the and of the and only with his the by two of been and and and There are in the of the population of the and in the the of Santo Domingo, and of the as a are of many the and were it is that in a of been or on is therefore of The of is of for for the of the The his de the and other high in and on the island of but of the and the were only a of is the of from a of for to a high of for the de with a of and The has been made at the of a had a few hundred of at the the of the to a This that had been from their of of had many with their and had a of The were to a or in the the of to the of their with the of for in The a high of in the of a few the of of the of The of was the and the from the of been The at two decades been in to this but since the of the population an of the of the of only at the of the contact It the at the of contact of a few or therefore of a few as by the early and This is by with a relatively small it is to the of The the of the by only for for at one and one was This the that for or were were the of it is that their was a The of is to the of with the of The of is with a and as as and to the of this is with a population on the of extinction. the population to this to an of of This is a because Hispaniola’s population been the after of was a modern but it a were the island was in and the were to But the were for native an of the the was and and the of for the that their were The were with The of the native population that from it by and a The had to the of the be the of was with a and population from to and from to as it be had the is Hispaniola’s native population the first of The a relatively small contact population of a few hundred thousand, an of or the or by and on by the of the to the island in the first of the and were to estimates on kind of this at the of the of the and the following The of the by in has been but the of is by a who saw The of the and of an the of a Hispaniola’s became of the population in the of the second of the The of the that a native population and a labor be to a and were to for native in the and the and the of an expedition to that only on the of the de and of the of because but de a of the in that were or and 1,200 that gold was but and that the who was a in are and who are native of the of first de at the of the that native two of people the first or of the period and only with numbers on kind of the It is that the same of numbers in the the following and to be and since it had been the death of that is in the because in this only a few had been but with for the point of the population be at the of the was the with the under and the of with their for native the of the be into the from 1492 the of the island and of the in the population but did the departed at the end of the a been the second from to the of the and the of the population was de and and the and of settlement were the from to the population was the and the as into a high of mixing with and from The fourth period to population but were after in the population of the de that in of had and to be of the people of after the population of Hispaniola had been to a few people and had to an end as a had been and an relatively and at of the population that was the cause of the is to the are the behind this high mortality. This has been the of the of the of the under direct and and to of the and by the and new in a The is on and or to to was for many from the of the Vega Real in to the in a death of to and in The of a for a on native and was a to their rule and that was by were at to to for the of the The second a of as the and of the in the that in and the in the and widespread by many to be an of new of death in to a in because of of the of the is to new by the and the relative of of is a since one in in disease and in the first decades of rule has been and by and a of the for the first two decades of Hispaniola to to the native only after the of the a for the the question of high in The is as few be to the contact and in the The first is that the contact with the native population the end of or the of the first in 1492 was and the 38 men behind in the settlement of for Columbus’ were for contact were many the end of the with 1496 only of the island was and by the and of the On the other hand, what and from southern new and that was is to the the from the end of of ships in the island in but at it is that new were of an or but to the of that mortality. has that Hispaniola because the course of the to from the leaving a a or was one of that an or on the of he be dead or of the he in Santo second is that in the of or is an of the of that of or of the and early were with of with in the and a of people dead on to to high among the are but are in to is the It is that and with the of the island the a to de and to the de or the many by the The only is a in by island the of the among the various he of kind of and of the and other is by in the same that in the to the of and he and the disease and native But it is that the two to a that the the end of the and the of the the of in light of the of is the only is in the of the to the January the were leaving the to to their in December of the year, it to a of that is and of which and are at one of the been that in the island of a few of the this of a few of been but are of and of other The same in a to that the had on the of Santo Domingo, in a to the for that of the of the is an which the of the de to two of the of the the that after the of or that has two of the to the two in of to the The to the of by the two in the following the to mortality. the one to be of the two that had two two and one and one A that had in the This in the population was to and the were a for the of the the It is in this that with and and other a a after the of to to of the is by of by and the of the first this question it is that was the first of or other new had at one or the the native an of the the many that had the but the early of the But is that the population had been by a disease to which the population was that an of of the a population in a and kind of A only a of after the had been and impact be the first one because of the population the the second is from the be and the of the population in the first the of the that had the with a the first in with their to the mountains, the second in and the it the population was to of and the population of be the of an population of an population of to after the high of other one with a this the to the in this is an is of was and are that and by the were the is question that to of and widespread was the cause of the be a of the of on reproductive high by a population reproductive mechanisms are The of in the second of the had but a was to became and was a of population reproductive mechanisms are is and the of the of light on this of the and the of men and among the de to the of and for the for this was and at one was are are and the of to is The of to men be the of of mortality, or because men were among from their a is that a of as in the of the many were their and a few or were to other the were in for the and native who were from the reproductive of the the the of their were and were native or mixing with the or with the of other and the and to in the of with is a in the early of the from the to in that their to their of to the to in and to the in that or and or