Morphogenetic plasticity: convergence, divergence, and the engineering of biological form

Our understanding of cellular plasticity in development has led to our ability to drive stem cells to directed cell fates in vitro. However, the concept of morphogenetic plasticity, the range of shape-acquisition programmes that tissues can execute, has been much less explored. In the context of normal development, tissue morphogenesis often appears highly stereotypical, with embryos eliciting a defined morphogenetic trajectory to generate its final form. However, experiments that remove tissues from their endogenous environment reveal latent capacities to drive shape change. Drawing on recent work across embryos, regenerating tissues, and organoid systems, we present examples of morphogenetic plasticity, and distinguish morphogenetic convergence, in which alternative routes reach a similar endpoint, from divergence, in which they produce qualitatively different forms. Finally, we discuss the implications of manipulating morphogenetic plasticity through environmental modulation for the rational design of organoids.