The institutional roots of translation and interpretation in premodern Europe

This article draws together some cases of linguistic mediation in late medieval and early modern Europe, highlighting the transition from informal, often kinship-based networks to more formalized, state-regulated institutions. It delves into the diverse roles of early language intermediaries, such as tholomagi, alfaqueques, nahuatlatos, and dragomans, who functioned as interpreters and logistical facilitators across various cultural and political landscapes – particularly in multilingual zones of the Iberian Peninsula, colonial territories and the Mediterranean borderlands – to see how their roles gradually became integrated into government structures. This shift underscores the increasing bureaucratization of language services as states sought to centralize power and streamline international relations, exemplified by the creation of the Language Interpreting Secretariat by Charles V in the sixteenth century and the influential role played by the Gracián family dynasty.