Tangible and intangible economic benefits of intercropping in gamhar-based agrisilvicultural systems in Eastern Plateau India

Agroforestry plays a significant role in the global economy by providing both tangible (goods) and intangible (ecological services) benefits. The present study was conducted during the monsoon and winter seasons of 2016–17 and 2017–18 at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India, to evaluate the economic performance and profitability of sole cropping of pigeon pea, cowpea–mustard, green gram–mustard and a Gamhar ( Gmelina arborea Roxb.)-based agrisilvicultural systems. The study aimed to support smallholders in making informed decisions regarding agroforestry adoption. Tangible economic indicators, including cost of cultivation, gross return, net return, land equivalent ratio (LER), benefit-cost ratio (BCR), net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PBP), along with intangible indicators such as carbon pricing (carbon credits), were used to assess system efficiency. Results from 2 years of field experimentation revealed that the cost of cultivation was higher under the agrisilvicultural systems than under sole cropping. Gross and net returns were higher in 2017–18 than in 2016–17 due to higher establishment costs in the 1 st year and increased crop yields in the 2 nd year. LER was higher under the agrisilvicultural systems, indicating more efficient land use. Maximum BCR and NPV [3.67 and ₹94,086 (US$ 982.65)], respectively) were recorded in sole arhar, followed by gamhar + arhar [2.76 and ₹84,153 (US$ 878.91)]. Sensitivity analysis indicated minimal changes at 8%, 10%, and 12% discount rates. The highest IRR and lowest PBP were observed in gamhar + arhar (484% and 0.19 years), whereas the lowest IRR and highest PBP were recorded in sole gamhar (−37% and 6.69 years). Oxygen production, oxygen value, carbon credit, and carbon price were highest in the sole greengram-mustard system, showing increases of 7710%, 7595%, 816%, and 817% over sole gamhar in 2016-17; 2103%, 2116%, 733%, and 733% in 2017–18; and 3179%, 3171%, 767%, and 768% in pooled analysis, respectively. Overall, the agrisilvicultural systems was found to be a promising practice in terms of economic viability, livelihood enhancement, and environmental sustainability.