Flattery*

Flattery is an ‘ordinary vice’ in a double sense. It is common in its cross-cultural prevalence, and modern theoreticians do not usually consider it among the worst moral vices. The term is etymologically derived from the act of ‘flattening down,’ or smoothing, that is to say, the attempt to ease personal relations in some way. Flattery also appears to be flat in the sense of lack of moral or psychological depth. This apparent flatness of flattery may be responsible for the scant philosophical attention given to the concept. Not surprisingly, modern moral philosophy completely ignores it. A moral theory based on right and wrong, on justice and rights, or on utility and welfare, has little interest in the practice of flattery. Liberal ethics, which focuses on the harm principle, does not view flattery as a distinct moral wrong. Modern theories tend to view it as a form of deception, morally indistinguishable from any other. Flattery is wrong inasmuch as it causes harm or leads to a violation of rights. But in and of itself, flattery does not seem to be a significant moral category. In contrast, more traditional virtue-oriented ethical thought does refer to it, at least in a cursory way. We would like to take our lead from that tradition and offer in this paper some more systematic reflections on the concept, which turns out to be complex and elusive, yet illuminating in a general account of the moral defects of the human character. It will emerge that flattery is a ‘Platonic vice’ that brings to the fore Plato’s contrast between the real and the fake and his insistence on the moral importance of the interplay between the personal and the social. It is closely related to the concepts of self-respect and self-deception. What is flattery? Unlike servility, which is a general psychological disposition, flattery consists of an overt communicative act which is essentially ‘propositional.’ An act of flattery typically makes use of excessive commendatory language in describing the qualities or record of another person for the purpose of creating a favorable attitude in that person towards the flatterer. It contains an explicit assertion of alleged merit. It should be noted that what distinguishes acts of flattery is not only their content. In many cases flattery indeed consists of an exaggeration in the content of the complimentary attribution to another person, but in some cases it may be characterized by the wrong context in which the attribution is made. For example, even if listing the degrees and awards a person has attained may be appropriate in one context (such as introducing her to the audience of a public lecture), it would be inappropriate flattery in another context (such as introducing that person at a private dinner party). In one sense, an act of flattery is very similar to bribery, using words rather than money or goods and appealing to the addressee’s vanity rather than to his material self-interest. There are, however, two (related) differences between bribery and flattery. First, bribery is typically a ‘deal’ between the two parties, the conditions of which are laid on the table. Second, the currency used in bribery is ‘real’—its value is undiminished by its use. The first difference, then, is that flattery is a surreptitious form of deception, and its success as a manipulative act is conditioned by the (partial) lack of awareness on the part of the addressee about its nature.1 Flattery succeeds only if the flatteree believes the flatterer has made an honest compliment. Since it is the perception in the eyes of the flatteree that matters, flattery may consist of a statement known to its utterer to be completely untrue or at least over-inflated in its positive evaluation of the addressee. The second difference concerns the speech act of flattery. The flatterer uses a compliment in order to endear oneself to the flatteree who is unaware of its phony nature. If A bribes B with 100 genuine gold coins, the value of these coins remains the same. Not so in the case of flattery. Flattery, accordingly, is to compliments as lying is to assertions. Williamson argued that ‘assert p only if you know that p’ is a constitutive rule of assertion (Williamson 1996: 489–523).2 A similar argument can be applied to compliments, which are very similar to, if not a type of, assertions. Like complimenting, flattery makes positive assertions about another person. However, unlike someone who pays an honest compliment, the flatterer’s aim is to win the flatteree’s favor. Consequently, even if one flatters by uttering a compliment she knows to be true, the assertion does not transmit knowledge. This is so even if the flatterer uses a true compliment on purpose, is a reliable judge of the matter at hand, and has a reputation for being reliable. The reason is that the flatterer is unreliable in another sense: he would not have made the compliment unless he wanted to gain something from the flatteree and might just as well have made a false compliment if such a compliment were useful and available.3 Therefore, the fact that one is flattering nullifies the value of the compliment as a compliment. Unlike the currency used in bribery, that used by the flatterer is, by definition, counterfeit.4 An act of flattery, then, is an act of deception designed to win over the flatteree. In this respect, it seems morally indistinguishable from any other act of deception. In order to appreciate its moral significance, we must look both at the character traits involved, and at the relation between flatterer and flatteree. The significance of the relation between flatterer and flatteree brings the of flattery to the In contrast to which to or and is in flattery is to a Unlike or and their which in human flattery is an essentially or It two for flattery. Flattery is in the sense that it only towards another person, usually in the public in a context in which are who must for the act to It should be that flattery is a relation that is it and deception, both of which may as we flattery is a attempt to a personal unlike it is not In cases it be Flattery is typically like the relations on which it and can compliment their and be to have a common character this is not to as we Flattery from servility, which is a general psychological disposition, the flatterer must the of an honest compliment. a of character that a moral of flattery to the of Like flattery is made from a of or or But unlike compliment, flattery is as is not the case with servility, the flatterer to to some the rather than it. he to his of to flattery, that it to the of in and to the in the of in The who is in the right is and the is the who is an person if he has in a flatterer if he is at his and the who and is in is a and of person. general and the between flattery and and between flattery and lead to a general of the two of flattery, or rather the two on a The first may be the The first to of excessive at the second to the person who from the excessive but has in In the two of flattery are by and The flatterer of the first type acts with at a or personal as a of the favorable attitude the flatteree would towards A would be flattery in flattery is the of is the of with the aim of the addressee Flattery is which should have not are of but is a of which as its for the flattery is a of deception. the person and the flatterer are to the addressee’s and but the one it the other In contrast to which is and not to the of both and flattery can only on the of the other of the from it The of the flatterer or turns to, the of the flatteree. Like flattery a of the his vanity and as well as the to the compliment honest and But unlike this is used to the flatterer’s not to the addressee Flattery of the second type is more It is an attempt to some personal in order to a Unlike the manipulative it is and does not but only personal attention and we the two of we that the manipulative be as the as to the is usually it deception and consists of an attempt to something the flatterer does not If the flatterer might something which is a in a in the in a which is even to is we consider the to be and the by the flatterer or we the flatterer and the flatteree or Flattery can even as a of cases are the of rather than of to the second form of flattery is and even we do not to from the we judge its in character. The two of flattery the of and between the two in The to its by his The flatterer does not the but rather to the relation a more Unlike the he personal attention and even if we this type of the that lead to flattery, and the of his it is to with such a who his and lack of both of flattery as of excessive This is not very and at first seems in as as the flatterer is In order to what these consist and what is morally wrong with flattery, we must to Plato’s of flattery, and the of the flatteree. this will the significance of First, consider the manipulative type of flatterer and his on the flatteree. the of view of his flattery for its being that is, on It has the of but is It is based on the of on the rather than on her Flattery is a practice which is not it is not based on of the but on It ignores what is but the of aim is of the moral The context of the is which as flattery, but he also the of and to do like their and that flattering are so to their that the two these of flattery describing as and as in flattery has a with his his Plato’s is flattery leads to the of a human by a is the of the flatteree. This is the of its to the derived from the of and the it for a genuine personal of the that as to honest compliments and The manipulative flatterer knows his and that usually that is, of which the or of the But flattery deception, which the the of the it the addressee in a of and that addressee the and complimentary attitude of the flatterer. the flatteree is to But as the of both to the compliments and to the or attitude that the this is the of a and not a to the compliments of The of the flatteree is a of the genuine importance and significance of the of the significance and importance of honest compliments by and the with of the type related to honest compliments in our the of the flatteree in many The is one of not of An honest compliment is and is value in and other that honest compliments and can it is the and person who is to flattery well as the person or one who is for If to flattery is a what is its But are two The first is the person who is not in the of at the second is one who can the difference between honest compliments and flattery. The first is morally the second is But the the between and the lack of interest in the of and the lack of and self-respect that leads to a to the compliments of is as an to and in in of the of a flatterer. to a compliment is a of a to of its real is and between and genuine and false a of of character and an The psychological of this in the to the in in an and which the to the flatterer’s real part human are to that would the of their of and are of flattery. are of this and of of the that is to say, such any compliment on value and completely positive about But that can the between flattering words and real This is flattery has some of even with who seem to be completely to it. in his on a case of flattery. to to to the on the one of the that to that in the as may be with with so may with and But he he being The and which would even is a flattery, an to his about being to flattery and who to be with such But the psychological is a It is not that the between a real and a of a compliment is A flatterer who does not or her may be to In such a only the is and to flattery is not only the of a but a that the a that be flattery an in our of the person and the who is not and not on is to the deception of flattery. This is unless our of the person is one of an judge of the and character of Consequently, flattery is the in flattery from real to the out from our if and can be so can we be that our and are not The of to personal in with the of the of flattery. The vanity or of the flatteree the real is the or in Plato’s the and our of flattery does not to such as and and is more personal than Plato’s two of our of the of flattery are by the to and the of In the seems to be of the manipulative sense of flattery rather than the he is not in this context with the attempt to personal what makes flattery wrong is not its but also its and and in the this on the flatterer’s character. Plato’s about the between and flattery may be as to the of between and of or between and of the is that as in our of flattery, Plato’s and even are not of the of their and their some type of We will to this The manipulative type of then, and the flatteree by appealing to his In order to appreciate the of the wrong in flattery and in its we must to the type of flatterer. In the in the of the of to our second sense of A for example, may be an and a but makes flattery rather by in a little with its it is with a the harm we her of with many other of that and their at least are for a the of the by flattery the of an his who like a It is of that is out of and a of the to to another person who is not in to some human and win The flatterer is not of his but of his excessive and in and to its the to the of a which one should know is and based on the self-interest. The the contrast between the flattering and the in second The between the flatterer and the turns to the of the flatterer and to the type of and This a between flattery and First, unlike flattery, consists in in that at least in some sense the believes his or even if the uses words in the to a and win his are from the he is in a the aim of which is personal gain he is he to a he at The in attitude and the of and it in the context of and is morally about it, and is not a of or lack of even the of and of the are and as a of towards the other Plato’s is he does and true and he is not of the of a true with This makes his inappropriate and even a fake of true an for rather than a real of to flattery. The between flattery and what may out to be the of the value of flattery. The second type of flattery is is as is can out of it. It is based on deception, and of In it a of some of manipulative flattery may but in the of both to the with or even in his to to the public at and to even on the of manipulative and deception, such flattery a The flatterer is he to the his is a which he believes that by an excessive of and he can a personal attention from the the of and or it one of and This is of a and is to The flatterer his of but at creating some the flatteree is by being the of But as even the by the of flattery is not genuine it does not from the right the flatteree and the flatterer are in that are on both and in the attitude of which for genuine or and to and a In the speech of the the of his which from to the the of that can only the and This type of is A genuine that any differences of and a and based on and the of their the of for the of Flattery and the type of with it and in the first two of the are the of and a both and is by the manipulative flatterer of the but its in a which is The of for another person and flattery may be in of respect, not to of is a of appropriate and even more so is a relation of which is by the of Like flattery a about the between two or a attempt to the of a even it does not is and may well from conditions that are of the the lack of interest on part of the of the We can for the and her well in her But we do not consider her However, even it It is flattery is not based on some or wrong evaluation may be the case in It is a of a of the lack of is a of the of might at be a matter of a of but the cases of flattery are The must to the the to the the to his But the is true as and should other as is a of self-respect and excessive by a for personal does flattery. The of the flatterer and the flatteree from an on genuine personal with but fake It is this lack of to to that a genuine and honest compliment and the and by flattery so This is the of Plato’s the manipulative he on and of the to We in the that the manipulative flatterer not only her self-respect and personal for material but also and the lack of self-respect that to the of the flatterer and of the flatteree. of by using compliments, but as we the of flattery is not its content. Flattery is by the of the flatterer and by the these are by the flatteree and by lead to a contrast between the two of flattery, with the of of the in the two The flatterer is, by definition, of his success on the lack of awareness in the if the flatteree believes in the of the flatterer’s about can the act its as any on the part of the manipulative flatterer is involved, it is Plato’s that he is about the value of the material and the personal of genuine is only if we Plato’s that the knows the on some But in the the flatterer be as to his his are not to this is a of the psychological of this type of flatterer. the one form of flattery is based on deception, the other self-deception. It however, be noted that the manipulative flatterer is only an type and that in even flattery their In other the flatterer of For example, is than and deception than the flatterer might that rather than are her real the of in flattery is in its in the flatteree. It is true that not person is a but as is to being the of between flattery and honest compliment, in many cases the in know and even Flattery turns to be both it is so to and It it on the flatterer. it we judge the flatteree and both of to be of on or their and to act in that it, in order to some There is something about a person who to for his or take of by that person. But the we towards flattery is also at the person. We who are to flattery and who can be this has to do with A person who has both and to his is not for and if he can only in some that are not completely The of flattery is for her moral and her for which her from she knows in her is This is out that to deception or makes or but that by flattery makes and The moral of a act of flattery is a matter of the of the two Unlike lying or many of deception, flattery only both their An of a to and a for moral for the false But who should be flatterer or the of to We tend to be more of the he is in a positive the is just a private in the However, from a of view on and the lack of awareness of the character of the flattering the two are on a the is in a more and psychological he should be even more responsible for the of flattery The to the of the of of the and the in the may some this In both cases it may be to for the attempt to or to than to the of flattery and but it may be to the as morally and more responsible for the than the Like in other relations based on it may be the flatterer who the person a compliment, or the who the an The so has the of the of moral of the of flattery. an to this flattery is a or a he that it is usually among it is by or by The reason is that it to or in order to some or to something in a case of and not to But that at least flattery may be a it or it to the addressee in or by an act of deception, or it even the for But in his to the he seems to these of flattery. It seems that unlike is with the and of flattery and it more as a to or a matter of In the the one on flattery, in flattery to to of the that is a more than flattery to its being with the two to the of the one which excessive is more of a than the one which excessive is in that but it is the is as we have to flattery the very of true on the other hand, does not the very of genuine personal and its may be a to it. For unlike flattery, which is and between who on and is essentially it does not with a fake of it. It is not and does not in a of However, is to that is an of and in flattery and that in that it is than the of his he the between and the to and the to flattery. This well with our of flattery as or the of flattery to the use of and to its but about self-respect or self-deception. seems to be only of the manipulative of flattery. But he is right in that we more of our than of the more We may that is the flatterer who his complimentary and is the flatterer who in he is of his The first is not of his the second is of the of his and does his to it. The contrast between view and that of and more so of brings to the of the of modern theories to account for the moral of flattery. The moral of personal and the to the to or act that flattery is but a type of deception, and its on the or of the of the of to moral theories that on and But for flattery is and This attitude the significance he to genuine personal and of and has our to of both and to the flatteree and the of the very of flattery to the Flattery is closely with the two of false can the form of out with the aim of a or positive but both can an attempt at however, which is based on self-deception. This second form for on the part of to the real the of The difference between the two is that flattery is with the of another person, is with the of is the of a person who is to that he with an of and from it may be The and a or an that he does not than an to personal of is the case in is an essentially for at least the of to a of that is to say, it has a for the and for the order This is is as some with its in But the of both flattery and are The context in which some in complimentary or some between what one believes and what one are is by and the of these as is to from one to the other. consider two cases of the in which the flatterer is unaware of the flatteree’s awareness of the flattering of the the in which the flatteree is unaware of the flatterer’s In the first the of may be of the of the but take in it, the act his and the of on flatters a is that you the act of flattery the flatterer’s of this of in the The flatterer is by that the of his is by it. But of is the of the addressee of flattery, at who to in order to personal or for who personal However, human an some form of personal and one can completely the of flattery. In that sense, the for not only the but also the like the manipulative flattery of is made only by to be even in the he at the of the be first he be he and he is in of is and is of any by human be and does not from the awareness of being the of flattery. The second case is the use of the of flattery. the in the moral as based on flattery. Flattery is the for the who and to in human to the of the public interest over the This human and can only with the of human in must be the argument that be used to human Flattery, which is as is used to human that of to on human The moral are other than which flattery the of flattery as the of the that the the audience of the the it is the it. of flattery at the manipulative on the or are not in this and are flattery. In that sense, flattery being a constitutive in its However, by the of the order as the of the flattery of the seems to the very of the of flattery. It a manipulative which not only does not have any moral but a by the moral and order It is the of Plato’s view of flattery, which the of this