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A panel is a set of units recruited and used in successive surveys. When the sample unit is the household, so-called R-indicators together with the comparison of distributions of certain variables to those known in the total population help to measure the representativeness of the panel. The method is applied to Understanding Society, a U.K. household longitudinal study. At each wave, under- and over-represented groups of individuals are identified. This allows the implementation of better survey designs and procedures to reduce the bias of nonresponse.
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Bianchi et al. (2017) studied this question.
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