A comprehensive review of water crisis in Africa: climate stressors, ecotoxicological risks, and integrated sustainable approaches

Africa faces escalating challenges to water security driven by climate variability, rapid population growth, and intensifying anthropogenic pressures. This review synthesises recent research on the continent’s multifaceted water crisis, emphasising the compounded effects of climate stressors, including recurrent droughts, floods, and shifting precipitation patterns, on water availability and quality. It further explores the growing ecotoxicological risks posed by industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and urban pollution, which threaten aquatic ecosystems and human health. By integrating insights from hydrology, ecotoxicology, and socio-environmental governance, this study highlights sustainable pathways for resilient water management in Africa. These include ecosystem-based approaches, hydroinformatics and smart water technologies, community participation, and transboundary cooperation to strengthen adaptation and policy frameworks. While acknowledging the role of structural engineering, this review focuses on non-structural measures, illustrated through adaptation case studies in South Africa and Ethiopia. The review concludes that achieving long-term water security requires holistic strategies that balance environmental integrity, public health, and socio-economic development to ensure equitable and sustainable use of water resources across the continent.