Adoption patterns, agricultural impacts, and smallholder income outcomes of smart farming technologies in East Africa

Agriculture is the backbone of East African economies, yet it is highly vulnerable to climate change and rapid population growth, threatening the food security and livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers. In response, Smart Farming Technologies (SFTs), including precision irrigation, Geographic Information System (GIS) and ICT-based extensions, have been introduced to enhance resilience and productivity. However, the widespread adoption of these technologies remains low, and there is a fragmented understanding of their actual economic and agronomic impacts on smallholders. This systematic review aimed to map the SFTs utilized in East Africa, evaluate the factors affecting their adoption, and critically assess their impact on agricultural productivity and smallholders' income. Following PRISMA guidelines, 94 articles were synthesized using a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of the full dataset with an in-depth qualitative focus on 33 key publications. The findings revealed that small-scale irrigation, ICTs, GIS, and remote sensing are the most prevalent technologies in the region. Their adoption is dictated by a complex interplay of socio-economic, technical, and policy-related factors. Crucially, the review confirms that SFT adoption positively impacts agricultural productivity, food security, and household income, though significant barriers to equitable implementation remain. To address climate change and food insecurity in East Africa, policies must target these specific socio-technical barriers to ensure that SFTs are accessible and profitable for smallholders.