From Soil to Society: A Comprehensive Review of Fertilizer and Pesticide Impacts on Ecosystems and Health

Chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides have been central to the intensification of agriculture since the Green Revolution, enabling substantial gains in food production across the world and particularly in densely populated developing countries such as India. However, decades of intensive, and often indiscriminate, use of these agrochemicals have produced a wide range of unintended consequences for soil quality, water resources and human health. This review synthesizes findings from twenty-five peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and review papers published between 1978 and 2026 to present an integrated assessment of the extent of chemical fertilizer and pesticide use, their environmental fate, and their documented impacts on soil biology, surface and groundwater quality, and human and ecosystem health. The review further examines regulatory frameworks and evaluates sustainable alternatives, including Integrated Pest Management (IPM), biopesticides, organic and natural farming, precision agriculture, nanotechnology-based fertilizers, and bioremediation and phytoremediation strategies for contaminated soil and water. The evidence indicates that while chemical inputs remain indispensable for global food security, imbalanced and excessive application causes soil degradation, eutrophication, nitrate and pesticide contamination of drinking water sources, and a spectrum of acute and chronic health disorders, with children and pregnant women being especially vulnerable. The review concludes that a shift toward balanced, need-based and precision application of agrochemicals, supported by farmer education, stronger regulatory enforcement and wider adoption of sustainable alternatives, is essential to reconcile agricultural productivity with environmental and public health protection.