Inclusivity assessment of digitalizing public transportation in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area

Digitalization is reshaping public transport worldwide through apps, real-time updates, and cashless payments. These tools promise efficiency and convenience, but in rapidly growing cities they can also deepen divides if access is uneven. Ensuring equity in this transition is critical for mobility systems already strained by congestion and inequality. This study examines the Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA), Southeast Asia’s largest urban region and a fast adopter of transport digitalization. We surveyed 1000 commuters and interviewed 20 to assess who benefits and who risks exclusion. Most riders reported using digital tools (≈84% used more than one app; ≈49% paid by smartphone), yet exclusion remains: lower-education, lower-income, and commuters in unstable or short-term jobs were more likely to travel 6–7 days a week, pay in cash, and rely on single modes. Socio-economic effects on digital adoption were generally weak (Cramér’s V < 0.2), but spatial disparities were more pronounced, with long commutes concentrated among Bogor residents (V = 0.341). Interviews highlighted persistent barriers such as fragmented payments, inaccurate app functions, and limited accessibility for older users. To prevent digitalization from widening inequalities, we recommend three priorities: unify multimodal payments, simplify digital platform integration, and strengthen digital literacy and accessibility support.