Prevalence and Determinants of Abnormal Ambulatory Blood Pressure and Circadian Patterns Among Adults in Ido Ekiti, Nigeria: A Community‐Based Study

Figures

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  FIGURE 1. Mean hourly trend of ambulatory blood pressure with standard deviations (7:00 am–6:00 am). Note: This figure shows the mean ± standard deviation of systolic blood pressure (SBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) recorded hourly over a 24‐h span.

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  FIGURE 2. Comparative distribution of ambulatory blood pressure by age and gender. Note: Panel A displays the mean daytime, night‐time and 24‐h systolic and diastolic blood pressure values across three age groups (18–39 years, 40–59 years and ≥ 60 years). Mean ambulatory blood pressure increases progressively with age, with older participants exhibiting higher systolic and diastolic pressures during both daytime and night‐time. Panel B compares mean ambulatory blood pressure between males and females, indicating slightly higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure values in males across all measurement periods. Error bars represent standard deviations. ∗ p < 0.05.

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  FIGURE 3. Standardised beta coefficients for predictors of 24‐h systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Horizontal bars represent standardised beta coefficients derived from multiple linear regression analysis. Bars to the right of the zero‐reference line indicate positive associations with ambulatory blood pressure; bars to the left indicate inverse associations. ∗Statistically significant predictors. Note: Model summary: 24‐h systolic BP: R = 0.790, R 2 = 0.624, adjusted R 2 = 0.602, F (13, 225) = 28.71, p < 0.001. 24‐h diastolic BP: R = 0.661, R 2 = 0.437, Adjusted R 2 = 0.404, F (13, 225) = 13.42, p < 0.001.

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  FIGURE 4. Predictors of abnormal 24‐h systolic blood pressure (≥ 130 mmHg) among the participants. Note: The forest plot displays adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) derived from a multivariable logistic regression model that identifies predictors of abnormal 24‐h systolic blood pressure (≥ 130 mmHg). The vertical red dashed line indicates the null value (OR = 1.0), signifying no association. Variables with 95% CIs that do not cross this line are deemed statistically significant predictors at p < 0.05.

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  FIGURE 5. Predictors of abnormal 24‐h diastolic blood pressure (≥ 80 mmHg) among the participants. Note: The forest plot displays adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) from a multivariable logistic regression model that identifies independent predictors of abnormal 24‐h diastolic blood pressure (defined as ≥ 80 mmHg). The red dashed vertical line indicates the null value (OR = 1.0), signifying no association. Predictors with CIs that do not cross the null line are statistically significant at p < 0.05. The model included sociodemographic, behavioural and clinical variables, with 231 valid cases analysed.

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  FIGURE 6. Distribution of nocturnal systolic and diastolic dipping patterns among participants. Note: Panel A shows the proportions of nocturnal systolic dipping categories, while Panel B displays diastolic dipping patterns. Dipping status was classified based on the percentage decline in mean nocturnal blood pressure relative to daytime mean blood pressure. Normal dipping was defined as a 10%–20% decline, reduced/nondipping as < 10%, extreme dipping as > 20%, and reverse dipping as an increase in nocturnal blood pressure compared with daytime blood pressure.