Understanding seed germination responses to low-dose X-rays: the role of seed quality, variety, and density

Seed quality analysis using X-rays is increasingly explored due to its non-invasive and rapid nature. Yet, the current absence of reliable and standardised imaging protocols has led to contradictory effects of X-ray exposure in previous studies. Our work systematically investigated the effect of low-energy X-rays (peak energy ≲ 25 keV) with limited doses (< 3 mGy) on a wide range of plant materials. The baseline of three germination categories was established across seven species before the application of low-dose X-ray exposure under controlled standard germination conditions. The high inter-varietal and inter-lot variabilities, in addition to the strong interaction between X-ray exposure with both variety and lot, reinforced the need to consider genetic and seed quality aspects while evaluating the impacts of low-dose, low-energy X-rays (< 3 mGy, peak energy ≲ 25 keV). A slight stimulative effect was observed on most of the species (bean, carrot, fennel, maize, radish, and ryegrass), notably, with a repeated reduction in ungerminated seeds led to an increase in normal germination (1.7 ± 1.9%). Intrinsic physical quality holds a crucial value where the minor negative impact observed in soybean originated from its degraded physical quality and not from X-ray exposure; hence, no destructive effects were detected. To understand whether seed size plays a significant role in a seed's response to exposure, linear regression models were built to predict 3D seed traits (volume) from 2D X-ray images. Yet, seed size did not explain the variation in responses to low doses of X-rays. However, the average density of the seven species explained both their natural germination ( p < 0.01; R 2 = 0.82) and their germination outcomes after exposure ( p < 0.01; R 2 = 0.88). Among all species, fennel with notably low density (0.7 g/cm 3 ) demonstrated the most pronounced gains in germination after exposure (4.6 ± 6.3%) due to the stimulative effect. Low-dose X-ray exposure is non-destructive with a beneficial effect on germination, but can be strongly influenced by underlying genetics and the physical quality of the tested seeds. This work addressed important gaps in evaluating X-ray impacts and proposed a robust design and well-examined radiography protocol for a proven non-destructive seed quality analysis.