Ecotoxicological assessments of over-the-counter NSAID (diclofenac, ibuprofen, aspirin) and antipyretic (acetaminophen) pharmaceuticals: a review of their toxicity effects on aquatic crustaceans

Commonly used, over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (OTC NSAIDs) and antipyretic pharmaceuticals represent emerging contaminants of concern, with high global consumption attributing to their frequent detection across diverse water systems. Concerns surround their harmful impacts on aquatic biota, especially because waterbodies represent the predominant receiving matrices for drug-imbued effluents and waste disposal. To support the growing evidence of toxicity effects from emerging contaminants like OTC drugs on nontarget organisms, ecotoxicological assessments have been conducted using bioassay experiments and biological models, like crustaceans. To shed light on the scope of toxicity data on common OTC drugs available for this sensitive group while identifying research gaps and poorly studied areas that need future ecotoxicological attention, the goal focused on reviewing existing literature on toxicity studies that involved crustaceans and commonly used NSAID and antipyretic OTC medications represented by ibuprofen, diclofenac, aspirin/acetylsalicylic acid, and paracetamol/acetaminophen. Published studies were accrued from literature databases using a systematic search strategy and a four-stage protocol. A total of 814 records resulted, with 68 meeting relevance following their eligibility screening against defined criteria. Extracted data were organized according to general bibliographical identifiers, experimental design aspects, and key findings. Assimilated information revealed that most studies focused on acute toxicity testing for the chosen pharmaceuticals using largely microcrustaceans as test models (Branchiopoda, Copepoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda, Ostracoda, and Mysida), especially conventionally known groups (daphnids). Ibuprofen was the most investigated across all taxa (32.9%), but effect concentrations for caridean shrimps (Neocaridina denticulata and Atyaephyra desmarestii) and the amphipod Hyalella azteca reflected notable sensitivity toward diclofenac. Fewer studies assessed mixtures, metabolites, and long-term/sublethal effects in relation to the focus drugs. Future research efforts can supplement these information deficiencies with the aid of efficient nontraditional (ecotoxicological) methodologies within ethical frameworks to support environmental policy and risk management for NSAID and antipyretic pharmaceuticals.