Multilevel structural equation modelling of walkability in a motorcycle-dominated city: A case study of Da Nang, Vietnam

In Southeast Asian cities, rapid urbanisation, characterised by a motorcycle-dominated landscape, has eroded pedestrian infrastructure and compromised walkability. Conventional frameworks, primarily rooted in temperate, car-centric contexts, inadequately capture micro-scale, climate-sensitive, and encroachment-specific conditions. The lack of models that integrate objective audits with subjective perceptions further limits their relevance to context-specific, evidence-based interventions. Focusing on Da Nang, Vietnam, this study proposes and validates a Multilevel Structural Equation Modelling framework that coherently links objective built-environment audits with subjective pedestrian perceptions, grounded in Alfonzo’s Walking Needs Hierarchy. Using a mixed-methods design, 720 on-site surveys and structured field audits are conducted across 30 urban locations. At the individual level, Accessibility has the most substantial effect on perceived environmental quality, followed by Comfort, Safety, and Pleasurability, which together account for 51.7% of the variance. Accessibility shows the largest standardised effect, with comfort more prominent than its theoretical position implies, reflecting a context-specific emphasis. At the location level, objective environmental quality is strongly associated with perceived environmental quality, accounting for 71.1% of the between-location variance. Additional spatial analysis reveals significant inequalities, with land use for tourism and recreation prioritised over areas that provide essential services. The study contributes a methodological operationalisation of MSEM integrating subjective and objective walkability indicators at their respective analytical levels; the empirical multilevel test of the Walking Needs Hierarchy in a tropical, motorcycle-dependent setting; and new evidence on micro-scale stressors in a Global-South urban context. The findings provide evidence-based insights to inform pedestrian-oriented planning in rapidly urbanising regions of the Global South.