Beyond Words

Historians are, by profession, suspicious of things. Words are our stock‐in‐trade. This is not to say, of course, that historians have never had recourse to nonlinguistic sources. From the use of archaeological evidence in the nineteenth century to Marc Bloch's brilliant notion that the intricacies of medieval landholding patterns could be deciphered by observing the interwar French countryside from a small plane, historians have looked beyond the holdings of archives and libraries.1 Scholars of the ancient, medieval, and early modern worlds, and of science and technology—those whose written sources are limited or whose very object is material—have pushed the evidentiary boundaries the furthest, although some modernists and social and cultural historians have also used visual, material, and musical sources.2 Despite these initiatives, however, most historians view words as the most trustworthy as well as the most informative sources; everything else is merely illustrative or supplementary. I will argue here, by contrast, that expanding the range of our canonical sources will provide better answers to familiar historical questions as well as change the very nature of the questions we are able to pose and the kind of knowledge we are able to acquire about the past. Each form of human expression has its unique attributes and capacities; limiting our evidentiary base to one of them—the linguistic—renders us unable to grasp important dimensions of human experience, and our explanations of major historical problems are thereby impoverished. Within the general category of the extralinguistic, I will make an argument for the utility and importance of material culture in particular. In its broadest sense, material culture embraces the class of all human‐made objects. This includes hand‐ and machine‐made, unique and mass‐produced, durable and ephemeral, expensive and cheap things. Given the breadth of that definition and the vast range of objects that fall within it, I have limited the category here in two ways: first, to goods “of style” or objects whose design involves aesthetic considerations; and second, to three‐dimensional objects with which people are in bodily contact. The initial constraint removes purely functional parts (axles, ball bearings, distributor caps), objects whose function must trump form (scalpels, airplane fuselages, turkey roasters), and the accidental by‐products of human life. I have excluded these objects because, although their study is vitally useful for reconstructing life processes in past times, they are not rich sources for grasping the affective, communicative, symbolic, and expressive aspects of human life that are central to the historical project. I would like to underscore, however, that this constraint allows consideration not only of artisanal goods, but also of objects of industrial design such as Tupperware, Bic pens, and Coke bottles.3 I have further limited my discussion here to those objects that are not just seen, but also felt and touched (thereby distinguishing between visual and material culture). These goods—whether jewelry or clothes that are worn, linen that is slept upon, the chests that store that linen, plates or spoons from which food is eaten, or furniture or housing that shelters—carry special weight in essentially all societies. Even the objects used in everyday, repetitive embodied activities, such as eating or grooming (to say nothing of ritual objects), are not simply functional; they are always also modes of communication, or memory cues, or of the or of the as well as of aesthetic or and to have special attributes not only of their with the human but they two of human like the people use are that objects and be in two and they are although their be or those of the people within this definition of the material, I will argue that are major historians of all be and in the use material have always used all of their in their affective, and used those and provide of and people unique in of these be the of be the of or be in In the of and are the and and the I will argue that to is not the as their to all that they their and use of material objects not to to that people in to use objects for a of their and are informative are in the by material although that its to the as by the like that by a century is very is such a discussion with an of the as as or written about by those The are as to be and discussion of is by their of only in are also by of and by the of by the of visual culture beyond the and by the of their historians their of to the or of or to of they will a objects not only are the of they are also in In their communicative, and expressive they have in the the and for a is not a not only words in a two a but in the are In a with to those that or not just a change in by their to knowledge and the they that also in The of a that one to be to or of is not the as a in in which the of the is in The of knowledge is by the of the form by which is in goods, their or their aesthetic also of the thereby that The and that a view from to a of in the nineteenth for of and to one in the of a or and that in the objects not as as social some would as the most people for most of human have not used written as their major form of have the and their and culture is simply of historical to words for those have had to in such an of material culture two of The is and the of people to and the is and involves the of of the objects and of the objects in to an of the evidence of material culture for historical one to the nature of the and and all of those in historical to the of with the make the most about people to of the and These with an that I but I that historians are by human and from our we are all small and and and and we in dimensions and we a to the material This that one from this form of is a for human to and human to and the and the human to in and as of the to for the as well as for human objects to and and we objects to with with and with argue that is such weight that in essentially all in the life of an and of a or and by the of objects. The of and is a very of people use objects to with Scholars of the that the objects to which small are in the a The object the the is able to in or their which are most from to and to but also The by the of these objects is such that as with as their and to the they will be is however, that people their to in objects those they with these of objects change a in for is not for that to from a or by the to by the of one memory of is never I I in the of the a would us I would the of the my by the in or The and a in a for but a in the the and the and argue that the with the that had not only to but also the to the are in the but in parts of the and with those they a to a the and the of the that had in with This is an to and a of our a in which we are the the of used pens, the or of their be and In the they us to in the they provide a of contact. The I never that to my provide a to as our could in a of a a of to the of clothes is an and for an to the of and the to a a from the of to to with to be in of the of an experience, the of the memory people of their be from their and from their and those of course, in but a memory is very and also to human are, of and Even in people use three‐dimensional as well as familiar and as memory cues, as in a are of the in which they are is very and have are with and the objects they the to The of to the with the past in the of the small of with the of objects. The of for for the the of a a to a The a the of a The of these of the bodily of the and the of a the of in those to the and in the are not just and a is historians to the of of of and of in the evidence of a to such by their the of for of and and the that to with would be historians the of objects and is not only historians of or would that and objects however, but also those of such as and and In that is and that objects to life. The be that of a a of furniture or of a one object to in the the very past and the The the that the of and the of in the or the one the objects of that I have for that to French to the they to have as with the of the and the of their as with the of that This a of the of and the of which to be better by by be one not only the between and but also and the they their The of of the and the of in the would be a one in to consideration of of and of historians about the change in the to to and to about by the of the by the and that from the objects of its and and are by with things. and have people and to those are like and to and These have important for historians to has for that the in a by a to goods the in the two the about an in a in of the for the of a the and its in the a the of of the is to the between people and in general or that which is in that the of social and is to grasping its in the nature of as well as of the of the of and to and the of and as well as some of their is These argue for the of and a of from the of that in a of its and as well as for a change in people to and to however, that to the material is the of those to of the human and the historical in the of the material that is most to is the is most in this with the affective, communicative, and to which all is by by is to the of in the nature of for the of people and but is of in the of and of all use objects and to and their but they very Scholars of for have that used a very of to and they had limited The aesthetic of the vast of to they in the but the of a by contrast, of the or the to all of the material culture to be as an important of that and distinguishing from had their object such as and and have for that material culture a in and between and in their of the nature of the and of and in they the of life. In their or such aesthetic The use of material culture for the of the use of or that the between people and in the and that which those of and also the of and people have their object in or used of objects. In this is provide the have in by the that and have always had recourse to and of is of of of and that objects From the of and to a from the French have a about historical in people to things. and of the of culture in and objects in and are only of the one could the of historians have in their of objects are useful to historians in two very The objects have the with only their in and the have they have from their in a or or to a use in provide the with to the furniture in a for an or or of some of they The of the or like that of the and the the utility of visual of objects to as a of a will by contrast, the and the objects are to the will be as a as a The that a the of that the of and of use of the to of the of people within the provide the of people and the the The of historical has and those the of the between objects and and the of the and has This is in a of or an for a the in a useful and change of and of objects. the of and and visual is very in the of objects and their is and historians of and design have for things. and of material culture has those study material culture two the and the The are with the of material the and of the its its The with the of material culture and to the in and by the objects in that of knowledge are the past is to be and that those the material also the cultural and I with that is to the and the object to the of which is a and some design and historians of the view the of their as the material of the in those would argue that in the of aesthetic and object are that one must to the of the object and its social and Historians have to from all of these but those will to the and of is the whose use of is to that of The of and historians is to by a study objects not to those objects but to from about the people and used is that that has the and medieval historians and Historians of all however, have an to from In their is to and to have had recourse to to the and use of their objects of are the and most of the material are in that the nature of the archaeological of very the and of are however, by those and in and to only to between the very and the very the one they have for of the material of past that modes of and the objects the the is the of about cultural and and human Historians the and of this and to for kind of things. has central a category in the of their the and in some the is in of the in which they material culture a that of and The of and the of the and of the of the of goods in and societies. In a very the of objects in the of life and those of the importance of the provide for the of people and of the and design historians have and as well as the is the aesthetic of the objects as well as reconstructing their and the of their these the beyond the object only the object is by Even the most of design or however, provide not only about a its and its but also an important in to from the a the a the used in an or the in a The have design historians in material culture to of not only the objects as they but that us about the of has of in and the of and the the of which in to the of and have to this of is design in the and as well as the In an to the in these us as about the of that as about the of the goods from the of in the to the in such as the of the the and of French and the of have for the of the and the in which and for which has the in which the French in the historians in have that two to and the by and thereby evidence to for the nature and of In the of of and their have of in from this I would like to two of historical problems for which the of and words These two although by a century and a used within the in the of life. are of the argument not only the importance of to but the of and The the use of the French a and material in to a of the nature of the between and the the The a in the of material to those as by the and used goods in their to their past and a in the fall of of the by historians to in the the of the in is the of to this French to from to to to the of the to the of and of of the in the of the of this a The vast of and the most that and that simply of the of the of the material culture and the goods in these a a that the between and the The historians change in the are in that within the of a French that they to a to and of and to French people to their and had the boundaries of their their had their had a and of of material culture and sources will however, that French not all aspects of their material and or from the of furniture for the of or The with the one and the this to change and the and not furniture and the of the and are objects with capacities; in used by and in the to their I would like to here that this the of not simply a of the of the or of the of the as have although as a of the of the importance of the and the for life. is the that the of a of and and in a and a material to be the one that the for in the material of the just to and or or one The however, that The not be limited to and a of design and or of all of the of that they could be to the the the to and to this but in the of and that the of the to the for for the in those had very to say about between and or and in to of the in an in of or in the and of to of the of or or they to which the would have with the and with the not as in a in which or with a to the form or a of This is not only a in the of to a and of the of the of The like as is that the only by the for from and The of life of of the between a of and a of and not to 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in the that of these objects the of their not have the or the to in a of their goods, but they to make to of the they had in the of the in its to the and with those with they for would however, have these goods one to would such they and from the or the the of such durable and in the of and a very to and of and could have simply their would the of the evidence of material culture that some French the of life further those and their with the in which they This that the most and of the of the French will be by the of the the and the in material in the of and knowledge of and social and to as as and are however, is the knowledge of objects by historians of the those in the of material culture will a with and with the by form of the very of in French the and and the of a of the of the material and the of the historians of in the is to in those to and that in their able to their The of French is French or or or had the that their in and that the French would the of French life be in from the they for their or or the of in the very the of of their profession, and or in the I have the of in the of is of a kind of with a of and a a a of and a all in The only object a and the only two and the and in the the although they also had a by the and a of and one contrast, the the of the from to from the to the of all like the in the or as or to that In all and in the of that they to be to their profession, their and the in which they their Given this of and to their the for all to their between and as a Even to French in their the of in the of however, that the vast of to in the of that to be with and and to their their their and in some their of a to of simply their they had also for of the of simply for the category of In their a and for they their in their or their with a and their and by to make a for in their to is the of social is to grasp the of their and this in has to very that an important in that their the for of the of their that had by the the of these had but a had by the as they the of In the of that the with and goods from the of of or to to these goods with their The and of goods in of the of these and of the for by a of of and In an to their to goods to a their to a of the of their the of their and to provide a from the or of the that the goods had the the to in the of that the had in the of the vast of goods had or able to an to the the an with the a the object as a to its the rich and the and French and and from all of and its and they in the From the fall of the of essentially all of the for written by those or their as as one or of the and their in in and and of of of like that of the had in the of the of their like that in or that as and written by those whose of French whose and had to or These their in used The in the material and of these as well as of the they with the of and for the of the of and to those and the social of a in a by written in a by The of of these is In for to have from in from as a of for a that and and in In with the of the an of had and with and The by a of some of the furniture and a the of the in that had the not only those had had to one had to the only of furniture of to a to a of of two in a by in one of the memory of to by within this in the the by these the in or in their the they most the or all the objects they could as they their or their such like of of the all of the all of the all of the of the to a its from to is that such to be by whose and and could the to and is also that this a used by those had for a in the and whose In is a that the of the the within The the of the and as is a human to be as the as is the this kind of in its of the also the in which life is in In that of a is one the of such a to be an in some all human memory kind of and in the also by but in of or These are in their of the their in the of the in the in which the general of the and the of the about the an of this of and the in in the importance in French would the and the the to be furniture for the study or the nature of the the goods the and the The weight of have by the that their in the as of their of their in that in as as the and the and the The that the as the not to their of their with the further its importance as of a in a by is however, that of the the has to with their of to the and to with their of These in the most sense, for the of a Given for the expression of have to for this of the most in the I this to with as had one or to that by the not only that essentially all of to the in their in a or in but that they always to these in their not the or all also to the only to that would as and the they to be the most the most the most to the in which to to of the in a of a or a in the of the of discussion of that with a in their most with the and most with the In the to be a central of in very or very very rich or very the always one of the to be The in just a of a and the the a a of not In by and and from these that in this the with food not but they a in these most to in the also in but in most The and furniture important in and that the for between the and and within the In that small to have two the always the to be always some These not however, and these not simply a to the of of although as a to a in with The only for the most and of of of the of objects and of that goods of would not be and that the of or of a to be limited by the or the are to be of use in an of a or are very and but not not to that a or a of had a from that the that had in the of to be the the by those whose goods had well the of and whose of These from the that the in these only the of of their These