Motivation and manifestation: Cross–cultural expression of the self–enhancement motive

In his commentary, Heine has done a thorough job of reviewing research on self–enhancement biases in Japan. Insofar as he conducted much of the work he reviewed, we assume he has characterized the findings fairly and accurately and see no need to comment further upon them. Instead, we will take this opportunity to discuss the nature of self–enhancement more generally, including its affective basis and its manifestation in different cultural contexts. In so doing, we hope to clarify the manner in which Japanese satisfy their self–enhancement needs.