Multi-mycotoxin exposure in Nigerian mothers and children: A biomonitoring study across agro-ecological zones

Mycotoxin exposure is a major public health concern in Africa due to food insecurity that compromises food safety. Infants and young children are highly vulnerable due to immature immunity and higher food intake per body weight. However, data on mycotoxin exposure in Africa remain limited. This study investigated mycotoxin exposure in Nigerian infant-mother pairs and toddlers using biological samples (breast milk, infant/toddler urine) collected from three agro-ecological zones. Overall, 75.6% of all the samples tested positive for at least one mycotoxin. Zearalenone, aflatoxin M 1 , ochratoxin A, and citrinin were most prevalent across all sample types, with mean levels (ng/mL) of 4.1, 1.1, 1.2, and 2.0 in breast milk; 0.83, 0.78, 0.11, and 0.79 in infant urine; and 0.99, 1.0, 0.1, and 1.9 in toddler urine, respectively. No significant associations were found between mycotoxin contamination in breast milk and infant urine or between diet patterns across the regions and mycotoxin levels. Mycotoxin exposure assessment of infants/toddlers using the probable daily intake approach based on urinary biomarkers revealed high exposure to mycotoxins especially ZEN, OTA, and AFM 1 . The results suggest widespread exposure among the studied population and highlight the need for further research and interventions to reduce mycotoxin exposure, especially in vulnerable populations.