Examining social inclusion and social capital among adult learners in blended and online learning environments

New learning spaces and learning formats affected the learning and education of adults. In this respect, digitalisation is believed to reduce social exclusion. Moreover, adult education, social inclusion and social capital are positively related among adults. Therefore, this questionnaire study examines how adults who are engaged in online and blended learning perceived change in social inclusion and social capital. We conceptualised social inclusion as social participation and social connectedness, and social capital as bonding and bridging ties. In the case of blended adult learners, our results show positive perceptions of social inclusion and social capital. Those perceptions are less positive among the online adult learners. In both cases, non-natives experience a higher increase in social inclusion and social capital than natives. Hence, online and blended learning holds advantages for adults particularly non-natives: it enhances social inclusion and social capital.