Red palm olein biscuit supplementation modulates gut microbiota in vitamin A deficient rural Malaysian schoolchildren: a randomised controlled trial

< 0.05). Microbial network analysis reveals that the experimental group exhibits a more cohesive and stable network, evidenced by higher average degree and clustering coefficient values, and lower average path lengths (P < 0.001). Our findings shed light on the potential of RPO-enriched biscuit supplementation in modulating gut microbiota in vitamin A-deficient children by enhancing microbial network cohesiveness and enriching potentially beneficial bacterial taxa which are linked to enhanced micronutrient and haematological outcomes. These findings lay a valuable foundation and expand the existing evidence base for understanding the relationship between provitamin A carotenoids and gut microbiota.