Mapping common and distinct brain correlates among cognitive flexibility tasks: concordant evidence from meta-analyses

Fig. 1. An example of (a) the WCST and (b) the TSP tasks. Note Within the gray screen, the color of the central shape serves as a cue. A blue shape signals the need to proceed with an odd/even task, whereas a pink shape signals the need to classify numbers as higher or lower than 5 (low/high task)

Fig. 2. Prisma flowchart for identification and eligibility of articles. Note n = number of articles. *Seven articles from task switching were not distributed by types of switching due to mixed types of switching (Cubillo et al., 2019; DiGirolamo et al., 2001; Armbruster et al., 2012; Yeung et al., 2006; Jamadar et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2012b; Sohn et al., 2000).**Six articles included data for two types of switching such as attribute and response rule switching (Philipp et al., 2013; Ravizza & Carter, 2008; Rushworth et al., 2002), operation and response rule switch (Stelzel et al., 2011, 2013) and attribute and operation switch (Vallesi et al., 2015)

Fig. 3. ALE maps for (A) WCST, (B) TSP, (C) Attribute switch, (D) Response switch, and (E) Operation switch

Fig. 4. ALE maps for (A) Rule-retrieval (TSP) > rule-discovery (WCST) and (B) Rule-discovery (WCST) > rule-retrieval (TSP)

Fig. 5. A topographical model of cognitive flexibility. Note We schematized in blue cortical and subcortical locations common to WCST and TSP: (1) Middle frontal gyrus (BA 9): responsible for monitoring several items; (2) Inferior parietal lobule (BA 40; left hemisphere): involved visual-spatial representation; (3) Superior Frontal Gyrus (BA 8): plans eye movements; (4) Precuneus (BA 19): recognizes perceptual characteristics of stimuli; (5) Claustrum: integrates motivated goal directed processes; (6) Superior parietal lobule (BA 7): associated visual-spatial processing; 7); Inferior Frontal Gyrus (BA 9): responsible for monitoring few items. Blue areas that were identified through conjunction analysis and through contrast analysis were outlined in orange (e.g., (1) the middle frontal gyrus was significant for the WCST ∩ TSP conjunction and the WCST > TSP contrast). In orange, we schematized cortical and subcortical locations specific to WCST. a) Middle frontal gyrus (BA 10): engaged in goal, strategy formation; b) Superior parietal lobule (BA 7): handles visual-spatial processing; c) Inferior parietal lobule (BA 40): involved in visual-spatial representation; d) Precentral gyrus (BA 6):…