Legitimacy and canonicity for the texts of late Ming new religious groups

Instead of the conventional and rather (monastic) elite concept of ‘canonicity,’ this case study introduces the concept of legitimacy as central to the concerns of ordinary religious believers. In the texts of new religious groups, for instance, legitimacy is attained in different ways. One common method was the use of paratextual materials. They made their texts look like ordinary Buddhist sūtras, from the choice of the term jing 經 for a legitimate scripture, the use of the accordion printing format, to illustrations. In addition, some groups added prefaces and other materials in imitation of elite writings of the time. A second method was to imitate the Chan journey of enlightenment by postulants through consulting different abbots, whose own enlightenment was properly recognized and therefore legitimate. Finally, the position of some leaders was underpinned by claiming that they acted on the authority of the highest beings in the local religious pantheon.