Co-creating conservation opportunities: a participatory framework for nature-based solutions and enterprise development in East Africa

Nature-based Solutions (NbS) offer significant potential to address socio-ecological challenges, yet their implementation is often constrained by planning approaches that fail to integrate biophysical suitability with stakeholder knowledge and values. This study presents a Spatial Multi-Criteria Analysis (SMCA) framework for NbS opportunity mapping in the Yala Basin, Western Kenya, which systematically integrates multiple knowledge systems. The SMCA consists of four steps: (1) biophysical suitability mapping using geospatial parameters; (2) integration of ecosystem services weighted by stakeholder priorities; (3) participatory mapping workshops with spatial extrapolation; and (4) urgency indices combining current pressures and future threats. In addition, we conducted a poverty and infrastructure analysis to identify Naturebased Enterprise (NbE) opportunities that align ecological potential with socioeconomic needs. We assessed six NbS types – agroforestry, terraces, riparian buffers, wetland restoration, cover crops, and afforestation. Results show limited overlap between stakeholder-identified priorities and biophysically optimal areas, underscoring the importance of incorporating local knowledge into spatial planning. Integrating stakeholder perspectives substantially modified purely biophysical assessments: marginally suitable areas expanded from <0.05% to 51.8% of the basin, while preserving consistency in core high-priority zones. Analysis of NbS–poverty relationships identified “high opportunity” areas, particularly in the middle basin, whereas infrastructure constraints emerged as barriers in the lower basin. This SMCAbased framework advances knowledge co-production and provides a practical approach for integrating ecological, social, and economic dimensions in watershed management, offering insights for balancing conservation and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa.