Analysis of advanced incident commander competencies using VR fireground simulation: Quantitative–qualitative evidence from South Korea

This study evaluates senior fire officers serving as Advanced Incident Commanders (AICs)—the on-scene incident commanders on the fireground—during a high-fidelity certification exercise to identify critical gaps in incident command skills. Thirty-four candidates managed complex fire scenarios while evaluators scored proficiency across 37 sub-competencies. Using a mixed-methods design, we (i) quantitatively identified sub-competencies most frequently falling below the 80% threshold proficiency threshold and (ii) qualitatively analyzed radio communications to examine how weaknesses manifested operationally. Every candidate underperformed in at least some areas. The most prevalent shortfalls involved strategic resource deployment/redeployment, response to unexpected developments, and apparatus positioning, with each area showing more than two-thirds of participants below standard. In simulation, these deficits appeared as delayed actions, communication breakdowns, and misaligned tactics under pressure. Findings indicate persistent training gaps in advanced incident command and provide an evidence base for program improvement. We recommend scenario-based exercises that vary conditions and stressors, structured debriefs with objective feedback, and a stronger emphasis on adaptable decision-making, proactive resource management, and disciplined communication. By pinpointing specific competency deficits and linking them to observable operational effects, this study offers actionable guidance to refine AIC training and certification and to improve fireground safety.