Cross-cultural validation and measurement invariance of the learning climate questionnaire in physical education: evidence from Mexico and Spain

Introduction: This study examined the factorial validity and cross-cultural invariance of the Learning Climate Questionnaire in Physical Education (LCQ-EF) among adolescents from Mexico and Spain. Methods: A total of 1,753 secondary school students (896 Mexican, 857 Spanish) completed the LCQ-EF. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses tested configural, metric, scalar, and strict invariance, including invariance across genders and two age groups (12-14 and 15-17 years). Results: The results indicated excellent internal consistency (α and ω > 0.90) in both samples and supported strict invariance between Mexico and Spain, as well as across genders and two age groups, confirming that the LCQ-EF measures autonomy support equivalently across cultures, gender, and age groups. Discussion: The findings validate the LCQ-EF as a reliable tool for cross-cultural assessment of the perceived learning climate in Physical Education. The study highlights the universality of autonomy-supportive teaching as posited by Self-Determination Theory and provides a valid instrument to evaluate teacher behaviors that foster motivation and engagement in diverse cultural contexts.