Genetic Diversity and Epidemiology of Enteroviruses and Rhinoviruses in Children Hospitalized with Acute Respiratory Infections in Novosibirsk, Russia (2023–2024)

Figures

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  Figure 1. PCR detection rate of respiratory viruses in different age groups. Asterisks indicate differences between the 7–17–year age group and other age groups in the presence of respiratory viruses (**, AR = −8.96, p < 0.001) and co-infection (*, AR = −4.99, p < 0.001).

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  Figure 2. Age distribution of respiratory viruses in hospitalized children in 2023–2024. The prevalence of respiratory viruses significantly varies among age groups (Chi2 = 193.24, p < 0.001). Blue asterisks indicate negative AR, suggesting lower-than-expected frequencies, while red asterisks represent positive AR, indicating higher-than-expected frequencies, both with p < 0.001.

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  Figure 3. Seasonal distribution of respiratory viruses in 2023–2024.

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  Figure 4. The bar chart shows the standardized residuals obtained from the chi-square test. These residuals serve as a measure of how much each category deviates from what would be anticipated under the null hypothesis, highlighting significant disparities in virus distribution across seasons. The red dotted line indicates the critical value of |1.96|, representing the 95% confidence threshold.

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  Figure 5. The bar chart shows the standardized residuals obtained from the chi-square test. These residuals help estimate how much the observed frequencies differ from the expected ones, which allows us to identify statistically significant deviations in the distribution of symptoms. The red dotted line indicates the threshold |1.96|, which corresponds to the 95% significance level.

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  Figure 6. Heatmap showing the occurrence of EV or RV among different months.

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  Figure 7. The phylogenetic tree constructed from partial VP1 nucleotide sequences of rhinoviruses (161 sequences). The analysis was inferred using the Maximum Likelihood method (substitution model: GTR + F + I + G4 + R). Reference strains for each species are shown with a blue circle; current study strains (n = 56) are shown in red. Colored bars indicate the genotype. Ultrafast bootstrap > 70% and SH-aLRT > 60% support values (n = 1000) are marked on the branches with purple circles, the size of which reflects the level of support.

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  Figure 8. The phylogenetic tree constructed from partial VP1 nucleotide sequences of enteroviruses (61 sequences). The analysis was inferred using the Maximum Likelihood method (substitution model: K2P + G4 + R). Reference strains for each species are shown with a blue circle; current study strains (n = 22) are shown in red. Colored bars indicate the genotype. Ultrafast bootstrap > 70% and SH-aLRT > 60% support values (n = 1000) are marked on the branches with purple circles, the size of which reflects the level of support.

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  Figure 9. The phylogenetic tree constructed from partial VP1 nucleotide sequences of enteroviruses D68 (139 sequences). The tree includes GenBank sequences belonging to known clades. The analysis was inferred using the Maximum Likelihood method (substitution model: TN + F + G4 + R). Reference strain for enterovirus D68 is shown with a blue circle; current study strains (n = 12) are shown in red. Ultrafast bootstrap > 70% and SH-aLRT > 60% support values (n = 1000) are marked on the branches with purple circles, the size of which reflects the level of support.