Enhancing Inflammatory Factors, Nitric Oxide, and Arterial Stiffness Through Aquatic Walking for Amelioration and Disease Prevention: Targeting in Obese Elderly Women

Figures

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  Figure 1. Study design and CONSORT flow diagram for the individual randomized controlled trial. Twenty-six participants, excluding dropouts, were randomly assigned to the control (n = 12) and exercise (n = 14) groups. The aquatic walking program was conducted thrice a week for 12 weeks, and exercise intensity was performed at RPE 11–12 in weeks 1–6 and RPE 13–14 in weeks 7–12. The following outcomes were measured at baseline (pre) and after 12 weeks (post) of sessions: body composition, IL-6, TNF-α, NO, and arterial stiffness. IL-6, interleukin-6; NO, nitric oxide; RPE, rating of perceived exertion; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha.

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  Figure 2. Effect of aquatic walking on blood results in obese elderly women (a) IL-6 decreased significantly in the EX group compared to the CON group (time effect: p < 0.05, interaction effect: p < 0.05). (b) TNF-α did not differ significantly between the EX and CON groups. (c) NO increased significantly in the EX group compared to the CON group (time effect: p < 0.05, interaction effect: p < 0.05). ⁣∗Indicates significant differences between preintervention and post-intervention results (p < 0.05), #Indicates significant interaction effects (p < 0.05). CON, control group; EX, exercise group; IL-6, interleukin-6; NO, nitric oxide; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-alpha.

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  Figure 3. Effect of aquatic walking on arterial stiffness in obese elderly women (a) baPWV-R decreased significantly in the EX group compared to the CON group (time effect: p < 0.05, interaction effect: p < 0.05). (b) baPWV-L was not significantly different in the EX group compared to the CON group. ⁣∗Indicates significant differences between preintervention and postintervention results (p < 0.05), #Indicates significant interaction effects (p < 0.05). baPWV-L, brachial–ankle pulse wave velocity (left); baPWV-R, brachial–ankle pulse wave velocity (right); CON, control group; EX, exercise group.