Iconographic analysis reveals widespread entheogenic practices and altered states of consciousness in north coast Formative Peru, highlighting an extensive ancient Andean pharmacopeia.
Andeanists have long acknowledged a shamanic component in Formative ceramic art on what is today the north coast of Peru, but disagree about the overall subject of the iconography. In this paper, I argue the primary theme in north coast Middle Formative iconography is altered states of consciousness (ASC). I present evidence for more varied, more prevalent, and much more far-reaching use of entheogenic and therapeutic substances during the early phases of Andean prehistory than previously reported. I argue that most north coast Middle Formative iconography (c. 1200–900 BCE) represents ideas and practices associated with ASCs, with particular focus on the means through which they were achieved and how they were experienced and interpreted.
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Cathy Lynne Costin (2025) studied this question.
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