Leptospira and Leptospirosis: A Review of Species Classifications, Genomes, Morphological Structures, Antimicrobial Resistances, Transmissions, and Clinical Manifestations

Leptospirosis, also known as "rat-urine disease", is a neglected zoonotic and waterborne disease that is caused by Leptospira spp. This disease is transmitted by direct and indirect exposure to the urine and stool of infected animals. The current estimate has highlighted that leptospirosis has caused at least one million cases and 60,000 deaths, with high endemicity in tropical regions. With climate change, urbanisation, and increasing human-animal interaction, the threat of leptospirosis and other zoonotic diseases will continue to emerge. Investing in multidisciplinary research, technology, and global collaboration is critical to anticipate, detect, and respond effectively to these evolving threats.