Exploring the relationship between e-cycling and additional moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity – A series of N-of-1 studies using accelerometer data

Cycling and e-cycling are promoted as sustainable transport solutions with potential public health benefits. Whether cycling adds to total physical activity (PA) or replaces other activity remains a key question. This relationship is commonly framed by three hypotheses: Compensation (cycling replaces existing PA), Independence (cycling adds to PA), and Generalization (cycling increases PA in other domains). Although previous research generally suggests that active transport does not displace other PA, evidence remains limited due to cross-sectional designs and inadequate objective measures of cycling. This study examined whether (e-)cycling contributes to additional moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in daily life. Employees enrolled in an e-bike leasing programme at the University of Agder, Norway (n = 18) wore a thigh-mounted accelerometer (Fibion SENS®) for 52–85 consecutive days. Using an exploratory N-of-1 design, individual time-series analyses (i.e., dynamic regression modelling) assessed within-individual associations between cycling and MVPA within and across days. For most participants, e-cycling for work-related commuting was not associated with reductions in other MVPA, indicating no evidence of compensation. Only one participant showed partial compensation. Similar patterns were found for total cycling (electric and conventional): most showed no associations, while three displayed negative and two positive associations with additional MVPA. These findings align with the Independence hypothesis, suggesting that (e-)cycling adds to overall physical activity rather than displacing it, while also highlighting individual variation. By applying devise-based monitoring and within-person analyses in real-life settings, this study adds to the evidence base for cycling and e-cycling as health-promoting and sustainable mobility strategies.