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Early software systems communicated in predefined ways, so they were easy to secure. However, the old ways of ensuring software systems' security and reliability are inadequate on the Internet. Although building secure systems is difficult, retrofitting existing systems to introduce security is even harder. For example, sendmail, the most popular mail transfer agent, has been plagued with security vulnerabilities ever since the Morris worm first exploited it in 1988.
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Hafiz et al. (2007) studied this question.
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