Satellite observation-based indicative evidence of anthropogenic heating in the Brahmani–Baitarani River Basin, Eastern India

This study examines temperature patterns in the highly altered Brahman–Baitarani River Basin in eastern India, to identify anthropogenic heat signatures. Results show a rise in the average maximum temperature by +0.35°C during 2000–2022 compared to 1970–1999, with seasonal anomalies up to +0.56°C, particularly from late monsoon to early winter. A significant warming trend (+0.012°C/year; Sen’s slope +0.013 °C/year) is confirmed by the Mann–Kendall test. Between 2000 and 2020, population density increased by 26%, and LULC changed by 7%–8%, mainly in urban-industrial regions, with built-up areas increased by 74% and cropland increased by 3%. The observed minus reanalysis approach reveals a mean surface heating of +2.6°C, strongly correlated with LULC change (r = 0.55). Spatial clustering identified heating hotspots in developed areas. Rising evapotranspiration and declining discharge may indicate increasing thermal stress. Overall, the findings provide strong evidence of anthropogenic heating, emphasizing the need for integrated land–water management strategies.