Evolving Chinese Perceptions of Britain Before the Macartney Embassy: A Cautionary Tale in the Making

This article traces evolving Chinese perceptions of Britain in the years leading up to the Macartney Embassy by examining not only imperially commissioned court compilations and published writings but also records formed in the course of key real‐life encounters. Over time, Britain was disentangled from being labelled as part of Hongmao Guo [red‐haired countries] and increasingly recognized as a distinct polity of strong power. This gradual differentiation was accompanied by raised caution against potential collusion between Chinese subjects and foreign powers, as well as growing concerns of a military nature. By foregrounding the Chinese‐language materials, this article attempts to show how the Chinese actively constructed a narrative about Britain and thereby to complement current studies in the field that have been largely shaped by the English‐language perspective.