A value-based deep reinforcement learning model with human expertise in optimal treatment of sepsis

Fig. 1. Architecture of WD3QNE algorithm. a The dynamic treatment process of the WD3QNE agent for sepsis. The continuous state space and discrete action space are then constructed. The DRL agent takes actions based on the current state and clinician expertise. b WD3QNE algorithm structure.

Fig. 2. Expected return of different algorithms at each learning epoch. The value-based DRL algorithms is run for 100 epochs in the validation set with feature selection (37 observation features) and without feature selection (45 observation features). Number 37 means 37 observation features that we select with the random forest algorithm. Number 45 means 45 observation features. Although the DQN algorithm converges fast in the beginning, it exhibits premature convergence.

Fig. 3. Action distribution for the test set. a Action distribution of the human clinician policy. b Action distribution of the DQ3N policy with 37 observation features. c Action distribution of the WD3QNE policy with 37 observation features. We aggregate all actions selected over all timesteps for the five dose bins of both medications. 0 denotes no drug given. We discretize the action space into per-drug quartiles. Action counts represent the utilized times of the drug dose. We can see that the human clinician policies tend to use low doses of vasopressors. The pure AI clinician policies (D3QN) tend to use high doses of vasopressors. The AI clinician policies with embedded human expertise (WD3QNE) tend to use lower doses of vasopressors than D3QN and higher doses of vasopressors than the clinician.

Fig. 4. Performance results of different binning intervals at each learning epoch. The patient trajectories are discretized into different binning intervals, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, and 8 h. a The loss value of different binning intervals in training. b The expected return of different binning intervals in the training test.

Fig. 5. Bellman error as a function of epochs. Visualization of Bellman error evolution. The WD3QN is shown in red. The Dueling DQN is shown in blue while the D3QN is shown in orange.

Fig. 6. Feature importance score. We calculate the classification accuracy with death as the label for different numbers of features. The 37 features (variables) selected with the highest accuracy are displayed. The glossary of vital signs and lab values is provided in Table 4.

Fig. 7. The relationship between expected return and survival rate. a The relationship between expected return and survival rate for 45 observation features. b The relationship between expected return and survival rate for 37 observation features. The relationship learned from observational data and actions taken by actual clinicians in the MIMIC-III dataset.