Integrated farming systems enhance productivity, sustainability, and resilience under climatic variability in rainfed agroecosystems of the Shivalik foothills, Northwestern India

Introduction Smallholder farming systems in rainfed and partially irrigated regions are highly exposed to short-term climatic variability, resulting in yield instability, income uncertainty, and livelihood risk. Integrated farming systems incorporating climate-resilient practices are increasingly promoted to enhance system-level performance and buffer climatic shocks; however, empirical evidence from longitudinal, farm-scale assessments remains limited. This study assessed the performance of Rainfed Integrated Farming Systems (RIFS) incorporating climate-resilient interventions across farm sizes and water availability regimes in northwestern India. Methods A five-year longitudinal assessment (2019–20 to 2023–24) was conducted on marginal and smallholder farms under rainfed and partially irrigated conditions. Households were classified into intervention (adopters), non-intervention (non-adopters), and baseline groups. System performance was evaluated using system productivity, net returns, Sustainability Yield Index (SYI), Sustainable Value Index (SVI), employment generation, and selected resilience metrics. Regression and difference-in-difference analyses were applied to quantify temporal and group-wise differences between adopters and non-adopters. Results Adoption of climate-resilient RIFS was associated with significantly higher system productivity and net returns than non-adopters over the study period. Productivity increased by 60–90%, while net returns were 1.5–2.5 times higher, with stronger effects under partially irrigated conditions. During drought years, intervention farms sustained 95–98% of normal-year productivity, indicating enhanced buffering capacity against climatic stress. Improvements in SYI and SVI were recorded across farm categories, along with increased employment generation and improved input–output ratios. System diversification through horticulture and strengthened crop–livestock integration contributed to these gains. Discussion The findings demonstrate that climate-resilient integrated farming systems improve productivity, profitability, sustainability, and resilience in rainfed and partially irrigated environments. By integrating productivity, economic, and sustainability indicators within a longitudinal framework, this study provides empirical evidence supporting climate-resilient integrated farming systems as an effective pathway for enhancing the resilience and long-term performance of smallholder agroecosystems.