Rangeland sustainability under commercial versus traditional livestock production: a socio-ecological analysis in dry ecosystems

Given the evolving patterns of rangeland utilisation in dryland ecosystems, it is crucial to determine how each system differentially affects ecological integrity, household livelihoods and social stability, and to identify which management approach better supports sustainable rangeland management. This study aimed to compare the two rangeland management systems (traditional and commercial) through an integrated assessment of ecological (vegetation cover, production capacity and soil conservation), social (subjective and objective well-being, and migration), and economic (livestock and non-livestock income, poverty and unemployment of farming households) sustainability in Iran. The results showed that plant diversity indices, canopy cover, abundance of perennial species, forage production and soil properties were significantly higher in the commercial system. From an economic perspective, the income of commercial farmers was lower, but there was no significant difference in terms of poverty, migration, happiness, need, access to services and life satisfaction. Structural equation modelling showed that production capacity is the most important factor affecting rangeland sustainability and there is a weak relationship between ecological benefits and socio-economic outcomes. Our results demonstrate that integrating production, social and support strategies under local dryland conditions improves ecological indicators and socio-economic performance across both traditional and commercial systems, providing a practical pathway toward rangeland sustainability.