The concept of the inductive effect is defined in terms of thermodynamics and its quantitative estimation is reviewed. The electrostatic (through-space) and sigma-inductive (through-bond) theories are confronted and experimental proofs evaluated, with the result that both theories are very approximate and neither is in principle correct. The inductive effect in isolated molecules (acids, bases, anions, cations) is estimated separately by means of isodesmic reactions.
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Otto Exner (1999) studied this question.
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